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list historical places
September 13, 2008 by bhaumikGD topics
August 20, 2008 by bhaumikA Unipolar World spells disaster for underdeveloped countries like India
Is Globalisation Really Necessary?
What shall we do about our ever-increasing Population?
Corruption is the price we pay for Democracy
Foreign Television Channels are destroying our culture
What India needs is a Dictatorship.
With media publishing and telecasting trivia, censorship is the need of the hour.
Kaun Banega Krorepati is less about knowledge but more about money and personality.
Beauty contests degrade womanhood
The rise of regional blocs threatens independent nations like India
Six billion and one bronze!
Is dependence on computers a good thing?
Should the public sector be privatised?
China and India are similar nations with contrasting ways
Is India a Soft Nation?
Value based politics is the need of the hour
Religion should not be mixed with politics
How to deal with high oil prices
Our cricketers are not to blame for match fixing
Why cant we be world players in industry as we are in software?
Multinational corporations: Are they devils in disguise?
Should there be limits on artistic freedom (the controversy on Fire).
Should there be private universities?
Does banning fashion shows and New Year parties save our culture
US war on Iraq-justified or not.
Role of UN in peacekeeping.
Position of Women in India compared to other nations.
Environment Management.
Is China better than India in software.
Should SONIA Gandhi be made the PM
BPOs in INDIA
Govt contribution to IT
will punch lines rule the Advt
premarital sex
is china a threat to Indian industry
India or west , which is the land of opportunities
water resources should be nationalized
“BALANCE BETWEEN PROFESSIONALISM AND FAMILY”
Effect of cinema on Youth
Education in India compared to Foreign nations
Is it necessary to ban COCO COLA in India.
What is the effect of movies on youth. is it good or bad)
Are studies more beneficial in India or in Abroad.
“UN’s peace activities” and “America’s war on Iraq”.
“Environment-Whose Responsibility”.
Is China a threat to the Indian software industry.
Role of UN in Peace keeping
War on Iraq
About Hockey being the primary game in India
Can America occupy Iraq
Cricket should be banned or not.
IS CHINA A THREAT TO INDIA
Present state of Indian Cricket team.
Love marriage/Arranged marriage.
Advantages of Co-education.
How to deal with international terrorism.
Should we pursue our policy of dialogue with Pakistan?
Is peace and non-violence outdated concep
list of musical instruments
August 20, 2008 by bhaumikList of musical instruments
The following is a list of musical instruments, categorized by section. Please add to List of musical instruments by Hornbostel-Sachs number also. See also List of instruments by nationality and Category:Musical instruments
There are 482 musical instruments listed. This includes the variations of categories, but not the categories themselves. Example: There are eight types of flutes in the western concert flute category. Therefore there are eight instruments listed in that category and western concert flute is not considered a musical instrument and is not listed in the count of instruments.
Contents[hide]
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[edit] Wind instruments
- See also: List of woodwind instruments
There are 58 wind instruments listed
- Bansuri (India)
- Danso (Korea)
- Dizi (China)
- Duduk (Armenia)
- Didgeridoo
- Diple (or Dvojnice) (Croatia)
- Fife
- Flageolet (France)
- Fujara (Slovakia)
- Gemshorn (Germany)
- Hocchiku (Japan)
- Hun (Korea)
- Irish flute
- Inci (Philippines)
- Kaval
- Khloy (Cambodia)
- Khlui (Thailand)
- Koudi (China)
- Maadal (Nepal)
- Nadaswaram (South India)
- Ney
- Nohkan (Japan)
- Nose flute
- Ocarina (China)
- Organ pipe
- Paixiao (China)
- Palendag (Philippines)
- Pan pipes
- Pasiyak or Water whistle (Philippines)
- Pulalu (Philippines)
- Quena (South America)
- Recorder (Germany)
- Ryuteki (Japan)
- Shakuhachi (Japan)
- Shinobue (Japan)
- Shvi (Armenia)
- Siku
- Slide whistle
- Suling (Indonesia/Philippines)
- Tin Whistle
- Tonette
- Tumpong (Philippines)
- Veena (South India)
- Vertical flute
- Washint (Ethiopia)
- Western concert flutes:
- Piccolo
- Flute
- Alto flute
- Bass flute
- Contra-alto flute
- Contrabass flute
- Subcontrabass flute
- Double contrabass flute
- Hyperbass flute
- Whistle
- Willow flute (Scandinavia)
- Xiao (China)
- Xun (China)
- Zufolo (Italy)
[edit] Single reed instruments
There are 38 single reed instruments listed
- Alboka
- Arghul
- Chalumeau
- Clarinets:
- Piccolo clarinet (A♭ clarinet)
- Sopranino clarinet (E♭ clarinet, D clarinet)
- Soprano clarinet (C clarinet, B♭ clarinet, A clarinet, G clarinet)
- Saxonette
- Basset clarinet
- Clarinette d’amour
- Basset horn
- Alto clarinet
- Bass clarinet
- Contra-alto clarinet
- Contrabass clarinet
- Octocontra-alto clarinet
- Octocontrabass clarinet
- Launeddas (Sardinia)
- Mijwiz
- Octavin
- Pibgorn (instrument)
- Saxophones:
- Soprillo
- Sopranino saxophone
- C Soprano saxophone
- Soprano saxophone
- Mezzo-soprano saxophone (Alto in F)
- Alto saxophone
- C melody saxophone
- Tenor saxophone
- Baritone saxophone
- Bass saxophone
- Contrabass saxophone
- Subcontrabass saxophone
- Tubax
- Tarogato (modern single-reed)
- Folgerphone
[edit] Double reed instruments
There are 35 double reed instruments listed.
- Bassoon
- Contrabassoon/Double bassoon
- Tenoroon
- Bifora (Sicily)
- Bombarde (France)
- Cromorne
- Crumhorn
- Dulzaina (Spain)
- Dulcian
- Guan (instrument) (China)
- Heckelphone
- Piccolo heckelphone
- Terz heckelphone
- Kèn bầu (Vietnam)
- Nadaswaram (India)
- Oboes:
- Piccolo oboe
- Oboe d’amore
- Cor anglais/English horn
- Oboe da caccia
- Bass/Baritone oboe
- Contrabass oboe
- Rackett
- Contrabass á anche / Reed contrabass
- Sarrusophones:
- Sopranino sarrusophone
- Soprano sarrusophone
- Alto sarrusophone
- Tenor sarrusophone
- Baritone sarrusophone
- Bass sarrusophone
- Contrabass sarrusophone
- Shawm
- Sralai (Cambodia)
- Suona (China)
- Surnay
- Tarogato (original two-reed variety)
- Trompeta china (Cuba)
- Tromboon
[edit] Bagpipes (single and double reed)
- See: Types of bagpipes
[edit] Brass instruments
There are 29 brass instruments listed (not necessarily made from brass)
- Air horn
- Alphorn
- Baritone horn
- Bazooka
- Bugle (instrument)
- keyed bugle
- Cimbasso
- Conch
- Cornet
- Cornett
- Didgeridoo
- Doulophone/Cuprophone
- Euphonium
- Flugelhorn
- Horagai
- Horn/French horn
- Jug
- Mellophone
- Ophicleide
- Roman tuba
- Sackbut
- Saxhorn
- Subcontrabass Tuba
- Serpent
- Shofar
- Sousaphone
- Tenor Horn/Alto Horn
- Trombone
- Trumpet
- Tuba
- Wagner tuba
- Quinticlave
[edit] Free reed instruments
There are 18 free reed instruments listed
- Accordion
- Chromatic Accordion
- Button Accordion
- Free Bass Accordion
- Array mbira
- Agidigbo
- Bandoneón
- Bawu
- Bayan
- Comb
- Concertina
- Electric thumb piano
- Harmonica
- Harmonium
- Jew’s Harp
- Kalimba
- Khene
- Kisanji
- Kouxian
- Likembe
- Lusheng
- Mangtong
- Melodica
- Melodeon
- Mbira (Sanza)
- Morsing
- Musical box
- Pipe organ (some pipes; others are woodwind)
- Saenghwang
- Sanza (Mbira)
- Sheng
- Thumb piano
- Tom (instrument)
- Tuning fork
- Yu
[edit] Voice
There are 12 vocals listed
- Soprano
- Mezzo-soprano
- Alto/Contralto
- Countertenor
- Tenor
- Baritone
- Basso/Bass
- Castrato
- Falsetto
- Kazoo
- Death growl
- Overtone/Throat singing
[edit] Free aerophones
- Bullroarer
- Harmonica
- Lasso d’amore
- Whip
- Siren
[edit] String instruments
There are 144 string instruments listed
- Aeolian harp
- Ajaeng (Korea)
- Appalachian dulcimer (United States)
- Archlute
- Arpeggione
- Baglama (Turkey)
- Balalaika (Russia)
- Bandura
- Banjo
- Barbat (Iran)
- Baryton
- Berimbau (Brazil)
- Biwa (Japan)
- Bordonua
- Bouzouki (Greece)
- Cello (Violoncello)
- Chapman stick
- Cimbalom
- Electric Cymbalum
- Cittern
- Clavichord
- Crwth
- Cuatro
- Dahu (China)
- Đàn bầu (Vietnam)
- Đàn gáo (Vietnam)
- Đàn nguyệt (Vietnam)
- Đàn tam thập lục (Vietnam)
- Đàn tranh (Vietnam)
- Đàn tỳ bà (Vietnam)
- Dihu (China)
- Domra (Russia)
- Double-neck guitjo
- Double Bass
- Dutar (Central Asia)
- Duxianqin (China)
- Ektara (Pakistan)
- Erhu (China)
- Erxian (China)
- Faglong/Fuglung (Philippines)
- Fegereng (Philippines)
- Fiddle
- Gayageum (Korea)
- Gehu (China)
- Geomungo (Korea)
- Gottuvadhyam (India)
- Guitars:
- Acoustic bass guitar
- Acoustic guitar
- Bass guitar
- Chitarra battente (Italy)
- Cigar box guitar
- Classical guitar
- Electric guitar
- Flamenco guitar
- Harp guitar
- Seven-string guitar
- Slide guitar
- Steel guitar
- Tailed bridge guitar
- 3rd bridge guitar
- Guitarrón (Mexico)
- Gusli (Russia)
- Guqin (China)
- Guzheng (China)
- Hammered dulcimer
- Hardanger fiddle (Norway)
- Harp
- Harpsichord
- Hegelong (Philippines)
- Huluhu (China)
- Huqin (China)
- Hurdy gurdy
- Igil
- Irish bouzouki
- Jiaohu (China)
- Kadlong (Philippines)
- Kamancha
- Kantele (Finland)
- Khim (Thailand/Cambodia)
- Kokyu (Japan)
- Komungo (Korea)
- Kora
- Koto
- Kubing (Philippines)
- Kudyapi (Philippines)
- Langeleik (Norway)
- Laruan (China)
- Leiqin (China)
- Lirone
- Lute
- Lyre
- Maguhu (China)
- Mando-bass
- Mandocello
- Mandola
- Mandolin
- Mohan veena (India)
- Morin khuur (Mongolia)
- Musical bow
- Nyckelharpa (Sweden)
- Octave mandolin (Octave mandola)
- Oud
- Piano
- Piccolo violin
- Piccolo ‘cello/violoncello piccolo
- Pipa (China)
- Psaltery
- Rebab (Pakistan)
- Rebec
- Ruan (China)
- Rudra vina (India)
- Sallameh (Iran)
- Sanshin (Okinawa)
- Santoor (India)
- Sanxian (China)
- Saung (Burma)
- Saw sam sai (Thailand)
- Saz
- Se (China)
- Shamisen (Japan)
- Setar (lute) (Persia)
- Sitar (India)
- Stroh Violin
- Sopranino mandolin
- Tamburitza (Croatia/Serbia)
- Tamboori or Tanpura (India)
- Tar (lute)
- Tea chest bass
- Tenor viola
- Theorbo (Europe)
- Timple
- Tres
- Tro (Cambodia)
- Trumpet marine/tromba marina
- Tuhu (China)
- Ukulele
- Valiha (Madagascar)
- Veena (India)
- Vertical viola (and other members of the violin octet family)
- Vichitra vina (India)
- Vielle
- Vihuela (Spain)
- Viol/Viola da gamba
- Viola
- Viola d’amore
- Violin
- Violotta
- Washtub bass
- Xalam/Khalam
- Yaylı tanbur
- Yazheng (China)
- Zhonghu (China)
- Zhuihu (China)
- Zither
- Overtone zither
[edit] Percussion instruments
- See also: List of percussion instruments
[edit] Drums
There are 33 drums listed
- Abïa drum
- African drum
- Agung a Tamlang (Philippines)
- Bass drum
- Bodhrán (Ireland)
- Bongo drum
- Chenda (India)
- Conga (Caribbean)
- Cuíca (Brazil)
- Dabakan (Philippines)
- Dhol (Pakistan)
- Dholak
- Djembe
- Goblet drum
- Janggu (Korea)
- Kettle drum
- Kendang (Indonesia, Malaysia and Philippines)
- Khol
- Lambeg drum (Ireland)
- Maadal (Nepal)
- Mridangam (India)
- Naqara
- Octaban
- Sabar (Senegal)
- Sampho (Cambodia)
- Snare
- Steel drum
- Surdo (Brazil)
- Tabla (Pakistan,India)
- Taiko (Japan)
- O Daiko (Japan)
- Tan-tan
- Taphon (Thailand)
- Thavil (India)
- Timpani (kettledrums)
- Tom-Tom
[edit] Other percussion instruments
There are 74 percussion instruments listed
- Array mbira
- Ahoko
- Agung/Agong (Philippines)
- Agung a Tamlang (Philippines)
- Babendil (Philippines)
- Bell
- Bianqing (China)
- Bianzhong (China)
- Bones
- Boomwhackers
- Carillon
- Castanets
- Caxixi (Brazil)
- Chime
- Ching
- Clapper
- Claves
- Cowbell
- Crotales
- Cymbals:
- Crash cymbal
- Hi-hat cymbal
- Ride cymbal
- Splash cymbal
- Zil (Finger cymbal)
- Cymbalum
- Fangxiang (China)
- Gamelan (Indonesia)
- American gamelan
- Gangsa
- Gendér
- Ugal
- Gandingan (Philippines)
- Gandingan a Kayo (Philippines)
- Ganzá
- Ghatam
- Glass marimba
- Glass harmonica
- Glockenspiel
- Gong
- Guban
- Guiro
- Hands
- Clapping
- Handbells
- Hang
- Hosho (Zimbabwe)
- Ipu (Hawaii)
- Kagul (Philippines)
- Kalimba (Africa}
- Kulintang/Kolintang (Philippines)
- Kulintang a Kayo (Philippines)
- Kulintang a Tiniok (Philippines)
- Lamellaphone
- Luntang (Philippines)
- Maraca
- Marimba
- Marimbaphone
- Mbira
- Metallophone
- Musical Saw
- Rainstick
- Ranat ek lek (Thailand)
- Ranat thum lek (Thailand)
- Ratchet
- Rattle
- Riq
- Shekere
- Singing bowl
- Slit Drum
- Spoons
- Steelpan
- Tambourine
- Triangle
- Trychel
- Timpani
- Tubular bells
- Udu
- Vibraphone
- Washboard
- Whip
- Xylophone
- Xylorimba
[edit] Electronic instruments
There are 19 electronic instruments listed
- Denis d’or
- Dubreq Stylophone
- Drum machine
- Electric guitar
- Electronic organ
- Electronic organ – synthesizer hybrid
- Electric piano
- Fingerboard synthesizer
- Hammond organ
- Mellotron
- Octapad
- Ondes Martenot
- Rhodes piano
- Sampler
- Synclavier
- Synthesizer
- Teleharmonium
- Theremin
- Turntables (record player/phonograph)
- Continuum (instrument)
- Computer
- tenori-on
- laser harp
[edit] Keyboard instruments
There are 23 keyboard instruments listed
- Accordion
- Bandoneón
- Calliope
- Carillon
- Celesta
- Clavichord
- Clavinet
- Glasschord
- Harpsichord
- Katzenklavier
- Keytar
- MIDI keyboard
- Organ
- Electronic organ
- Hammond Organ
- Pipe organ
- Piano
- Baby grand piano
- Electric piano
- Grand piano
- Janko piano
- Thumb piano
- Toy piano
- Upright piano
- Upright grand piano
- Viola organista
[edit] Other
There are 10 other musical instruments listed
- Crystallophones
- Wobble board (Australian)
- Hardart
- Suikinkutsu (Japanese water zither)
- Shishi odoshi (Japanese)
- Hydraulophone
- Plasmaphone
- Pyrophone
- Quintephone
- Sea organ
[edit] External links
Oddmusic A website dedicated to unique, odd, ethnic, experimental and unusual musical instruments and resources.
Categories: Musical instruments | Lists of musical instruments
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August 13, 2008 by bhaumik
Epic India
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
(Redirected from Kingdoms of ancient India)
- This article is about the kingdoms as reflected in Sanskrit literature. See History of India for a historical overview, in particular Mahajanapadas and Middle kingdoms of India for historical kingdoms ca. 700 BC–AD 1200.
Epic India is the depiction of Greater India in the Sanskrit epics, viz. the Mahabharata and the Ramayana as well as Puranic literature (the itihasa).
The historical context of the Sanskrit epics are the late Vedic Mahajanapadas (from about 700 BC) and the subsequent formation of the Maurya Empire, the beginning of the “golden age” of Classical Sanskrit literature.
[edit] The kingdoms
[edit] The boundaries of the kingdoms
The kingdoms mentioned below existed when territorial boundaries were less important, due to the limited human population and sparse human settlements. Often rivers formed the boundaries of two neighbouring kingdoms, as was the case between northern and southern Panchala and the western (Pandava’s Kingdom) and eastern (Kaurava’s Kingdom) Kuru. Sometimes, large forests, which were larger than the kingdoms themselves, formed their boundaries as was the case of the Naimisha Forest between Panchala and Kosala kingdoms. Mountain ranges like Himalaya, Vindhya and Sahya also formed their boundaries.
[edit] The cities and villages
Some kingdoms possessed a main city that served as its capital. For example, the capital of Pandava’s Kingdom was Indraprastha and the Kaurava’s Kingdom was Hastinapura. Ahichatra was the capital of Northern Panchala where as Kampilya was the capital of Southern Panchala. Kosala Kingdom had its capital as Ayodhya. Apart from the main city or capital, where the palace of the ruling king was situated, there were small towns and villages spread in a kingdom. Tax was collected by the officers appointed by the king from these villages and towns. What the king offered in return to these villages and towns was protection from the attack of other kings and robber tribes, as well as from invading foreign nomadic tribes. The king also enforced code and order in his kingdom by punishing the guilty.
[edit] Interactions between kingdoms
There were no border security for a kingdom and border disputes were very rare. One king may conduct a military-campaign (often designated as Digvijaya meaning victory over all the directions) and defeat another king in a battle, lasting for a day. The defeated king would acknowledge the supremacy of the victorious king. The defeated king might some times be asked to give a tribute to the victorious king. Tribute will be collected only once, not in a periodic basis. The defeated king, in most cases, is free to rule his own kingdom, without maintaining any contact with the victorious king. There was no annexation of one kingdom by another kingdom. Often a military general makes these campaigns on behalf of his king. A military-campaign and tribute collection is often associated with a great sacrifice (like Rajasuya or Aswamedha) conducted in the kingdom of the campaigner king. The defeated king also was invited to attend these sacrifice ceremonies, as a friend and ally.
[edit] New kingdoms
New kingdoms were formed when a major clan produced more than one king in a generation. The Kuru clan of kings and Ikshwaku clan of kings were very successful in governing throughout north India with their numerous kingdoms, which were formed after each successive generation. Similarly, the Yadava clan of kings formed numerous kingdoms in central India.
[edit] Cultural differences in the kingdoms
Main article Bahlika Culture
Western parts of India were dominated by tribes who had a slightly different culture that was considered as non-vedic by the mainstream Vedic culture prevailed in the Kuru and Panchala kingdoms. Probably these were due to the influence of Iranian cultures. Similarly tribes ruling south India were also considered as non-Vedic by the Kuru, Panchalas, though the differences were not so significant. This may be due to the Dravidian nature of these tribes. Similarly there were some tribes in the eastern regions of India, considered to be in this category. Tribes with a different culture was collectively termed by the Vedic tribes by the name Mlechha. Very little was mentioned in the ancient Indian literature, about the kingdoms to the north, beyond Himalayas. China was mentioned as a kingdom known as Chin, some times grouped with Mlechcha kingdoms.
[edit] Main kingdoms of Northern and North-Central India
| Kuru Kingdom | Panchala Kingdom | Vatsa Kingdom |
[edit] Main kingdoms of North-Central India
| Kosala Kingdom | Kasi Kingdom | Videha Kingdom | Dakshina Kosala Kingdom | Malla Kingdom |
[edit] Kingdoms of Western and West-Central India
[edit] North-Northwestern (Fishermen’s) kingdoms
| Matsya Kingdom |
[edit] Western kingdoms
| Trigarta Kingdom | Salwa Kingdom | Madra Kingdom | Sindhu Kingdom | Sauvira Kingdom |
| Sivi Kingdom | Kekeya Kingdom | Gandhara Kingdom | Youdheya Kingdom | Pahlava Kingdom |
[edit] Northwestern kingdoms
| Bahlika Kingdom | Parama Kamboja Kingdom | Uttara Madra Kingdom | Uttara Kuru Kingdom |
| Yavana Kingdom | Khasa Kingdom | Saka Kingdom |
[edit] Northern kingdoms
| Kasmira Kingdom | Kamboja Kingdom | Darada Kingdom | Parada Kingdom | Parasika Kingdom |
| Tushara Kingdom | Huna Kingdom | Hara Huna Kingdom | Rishika Kingdom | China Kingdom |
| Parama China Kingdom |
[edit] Eastern kingdoms
| Magadha Kingdom | Kikata Kingdom | Anga Kingdom | Pragjyotisha Kingdom | Sonita Kingdom |
| Lauhitya Kingdom | Pundra Kingdom | Suhma Kingdom | Vanga Kingdom | Odra Kingdom |
| Utkala Kingdom |
[edit] Kingdoms South of the Vindhya Range
| Vidarbha Kingdom | Anupa Kingdom | Surparaka Kingdom | Nasikya Kingdom |
| Konkana Kingdom | Asmaka Kingdom | Danda Kingdom | Kalinga Kingdom |
[edit] Kingdoms in the extreme South
[edit] Saraswati Valley kingdoms
| Saraswata Kingdom | Abhira Kingdom | Sudra Kingdom | Nishada Kingdom |
[edit] Himalayan kingdoms
The table lands and valleys of the great Himalayan Mountain Ranges, which were almost inaccessible to the people settled in the Ganga, Saraswati and Sindhu river valleys, were inhabited by tribes who had very little interactions with the rest of the world. The Vedic people of the plains considered these tribes to be super-human and in later periods considered them even as natural-spirits. The domains of these exotic tribes are listed below:
To know about the mythological aspects of these exotic tribes see Hindu mythology. To know about the historical significance of these tribes see the Exotic tribes of ancient India.
| Kimpurusha Kingdom | Pisacha Kingdom | Naga Kingdom | Kinnara Kingdom | Yaksha Kingdom |
| Gandharva Kingdom | Kirata Kingdom | Himalaya Kingdom | Parvata Kingdom | Nepa Kingdom |
[edit] See also
- Bharatavarsha
- Chakravartin
- Mahabharata
- Ramayana
- Exotic tribes of ancient India
- Historic figures of ancient India
- Iron Age India
[edit] References and External Links
- Mahabharata of Krishna Dwaipayana Vyasa (English translation is available at http://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/maha/index.htm)
- Ramayana of Valmiki(English translation is available at http://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/index.htm)
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August 13, 2008 by bhaumik
Epic India
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
(Redirected from Kingdoms of ancient India)
- This article is about the kingdoms as reflected in Sanskrit literature. See History of India for a historical overview, in particular Mahajanapadas and Middle kingdoms of India for historical kingdoms ca. 700 BC–AD 1200.
Epic India is the depiction of Greater India in the Sanskrit epics, viz. the Mahabharata and the Ramayana as well as Puranic literature (the itihasa).
The historical context of the Sanskrit epics are the late Vedic Mahajanapadas (from about 700 BC) and the subsequent formation of the Maurya Empire, the beginning of the “golden age” of Classical Sanskrit literature.
[edit] The kingdoms
[edit] The boundaries of the kingdoms
The kingdoms mentioned below existed when territorial boundaries were less important, due to the limited human population and sparse human settlements. Often rivers formed the boundaries of two neighbouring kingdoms, as was the case between northern and southern Panchala and the western (Pandava’s Kingdom) and eastern (Kaurava’s Kingdom) Kuru. Sometimes, large forests, which were larger than the kingdoms themselves, formed their boundaries as was the case of the Naimisha Forest between Panchala and Kosala kingdoms. Mountain ranges like Himalaya, Vindhya and Sahya also formed their boundaries.
[edit] The cities and villages
Some kingdoms possessed a main city that served as its capital. For example, the capital of Pandava’s Kingdom was Indraprastha and the Kaurava’s Kingdom was Hastinapura. Ahichatra was the capital of Northern Panchala where as Kampilya was the capital of Southern Panchala. Kosala Kingdom had its capital as Ayodhya. Apart from the main city or capital, where the palace of the ruling king was situated, there were small towns and villages spread in a kingdom. Tax was collected by the officers appointed by the king from these villages and towns. What the king offered in return to these villages and towns was protection from the attack of other kings and robber tribes, as well as from invading foreign nomadic tribes. The king also enforced code and order in his kingdom by punishing the guilty.
[edit] Interactions between kingdoms
There were no border security for a kingdom and border disputes were very rare. One king may conduct a military-campaign (often designated as Digvijaya meaning victory over all the directions) and defeat another king in a battle, lasting for a day. The defeated king would acknowledge the supremacy of the victorious king. The defeated king might some times be asked to give a tribute to the victorious king. Tribute will be collected only once, not in a periodic basis. The defeated king, in most cases, is free to rule his own kingdom, without maintaining any contact with the victorious king. There was no annexation of one kingdom by another kingdom. Often a military general makes these campaigns on behalf of his king. A military-campaign and tribute collection is often associated with a great sacrifice (like Rajasuya or Aswamedha) conducted in the kingdom of the campaigner king. The defeated king also was invited to attend these sacrifice ceremonies, as a friend and ally.
[edit] New kingdoms
New kingdoms were formed when a major clan produced more than one king in a generation. The Kuru clan of kings and Ikshwaku clan of kings were very successful in governing throughout north India with their numerous kingdoms, which were formed after each successive generation. Similarly, the Yadava clan of kings formed numerous kingdoms in central India.
[edit] Cultural differences in the kingdoms
Main article Bahlika Culture
Western parts of India were dominated by tribes who had a slightly different culture that was considered as non-vedic by the mainstream Vedic culture prevailed in the Kuru and Panchala kingdoms. Probably these were due to the influence of Iranian cultures. Similarly tribes ruling south India were also considered as non-Vedic by the Kuru, Panchalas, though the differences were not so significant. This may be due to the Dravidian nature of these tribes. Similarly there were some tribes in the eastern regions of India, considered to be in this category. Tribes with a different culture was collectively termed by the Vedic tribes by the name Mlechha. Very little was mentioned in the ancient Indian literature, about the kingdoms to the north, beyond Himalayas. China was mentioned as a kingdom known as Chin, some times grouped with Mlechcha kingdoms.
[edit] Main kingdoms of Northern and North-Central India
| Kuru Kingdom | Panchala Kingdom | Vatsa Kingdom |
[edit] Main kingdoms of North-Central India
| Kosala Kingdom | Kasi Kingdom | Videha Kingdom | Dakshina Kosala Kingdom | Malla Kingdom |
[edit] Kingdoms of Western and West-Central India
[edit] North-Northwestern (Fishermen’s) kingdoms
| Matsya Kingdom |
[edit] Western kingdoms
| Trigarta Kingdom | Salwa Kingdom | Madra Kingdom | Sindhu Kingdom | Sauvira Kingdom |
| Sivi Kingdom | Kekeya Kingdom | Gandhara Kingdom | Youdheya Kingdom | Pahlava Kingdom |
[edit] Northwestern kingdoms
| Bahlika Kingdom | Parama Kamboja Kingdom | Uttara Madra Kingdom | Uttara Kuru Kingdom |
| Yavana Kingdom | Khasa Kingdom | Saka Kingdom |
[edit] Northern kingdoms
| Kasmira Kingdom | Kamboja Kingdom | Darada Kingdom | Parada Kingdom | Parasika Kingdom |
| Tushara Kingdom | Huna Kingdom | Hara Huna Kingdom | Rishika Kingdom | China Kingdom |
| Parama China Kingdom |
[edit] Eastern kingdoms
| Magadha Kingdom | Kikata Kingdom | Anga Kingdom | Pragjyotisha Kingdom | Sonita Kingdom |
| Lauhitya Kingdom | Pundra Kingdom | Suhma Kingdom | Vanga Kingdom | Odra Kingdom |
| Utkala Kingdom |
[edit] Kingdoms South of the Vindhya Range
| Vidarbha Kingdom | Anupa Kingdom | Surparaka Kingdom | Nasikya Kingdom |
| Konkana Kingdom | Asmaka Kingdom | Danda Kingdom | Kalinga Kingdom |
[edit] Kingdoms in the extreme South
[edit] Saraswati Valley kingdoms
| Saraswata Kingdom | Abhira Kingdom | Sudra Kingdom | Nishada Kingdom |
[edit] Himalayan kingdoms
The table lands and valleys of the great Himalayan Mountain Ranges, which were almost inaccessible to the people settled in the Ganga, Saraswati and Sindhu river valleys, were inhabited by tribes who had very little interactions with the rest of the world. The Vedic people of the plains considered these tribes to be super-human and in later periods considered them even as natural-spirits. The domains of these exotic tribes are listed below:
To know about the mythological aspects of these exotic tribes see Hindu mythology. To know about the historical significance of these tribes see the Exotic tribes of ancient India.
| Kimpurusha Kingdom | Pisacha Kingdom | Naga Kingdom | Kinnara Kingdom | Yaksha Kingdom |
| Gandharva Kingdom | Kirata Kingdom | Himalaya Kingdom | Parvata Kingdom | Nepa Kingdom |
[edit] See also
- Bharatavarsha
- Chakravartin
- Mahabharata
- Ramayana
- Exotic tribes of ancient India
- Historic figures of ancient India
- Iron Age India
[edit] References and External Links
- Mahabharata of Krishna Dwaipayana Vyasa (English translation is available at http://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/maha/index.htm)
- Ramayana of Valmiki(English translation is available at http://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/index.htm)
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Rama
August 13, 2008 by bhaumikRama
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
(Redirected from Lord Ram)
This article is about the incarnation of Vishnu. For other uses, see Rama (disambiguation) and Ramachandra (disambiguation).
| It has been suggested that Raghava Rama be merged into this article or section. (Discuss) |
| Rama | |
 Lord Rama (center) with wife Sita, brother Lakshmana (with fan) and devotee, Hanuman (far left). |
|
| Devanagari | राम |
|---|---|
| Affiliation | Avatar of Vishnu |
| Abode | Ayodhya |
| Weapon | The Bow Kodanda |
| Consort | Sita |
| Siblings | Bharat, Laxman, Shatrughna |
Rama (IAST: rāma, Devanāgarī: राम, Khmer: Phreah Ream, Thai: Phra Ram, Lao: Phra Lam, Tagalog: Rajah Bantugan) or Ramachandra was a legendary king of Ayodhya in ancient India. In Hinduism,[1] he is considered to be an avatar of Vishnu[2] and a lila-avatara as described in the Bhagavata Purana.[3]
Rama is one of the most popular figures and deities in Vaishnavism and Vaishnava religious scriptures in South and Southeast Asia.[4] The majority of details concerning Rama come from the Ramayana, one of the two great epics of India.[5] Born as the eldest son of Kaushalya and Dasharatha, king of Ayodhya, Rama is referred to within Hinduism as Maryada Purushottama,[6] literally the Perfect Man or Lord of Restrictions.[7] Rama is the husband of Sita, who Hindus consider to be an Avatar of Lakshmi and the embodiment of perfect womanhood.[6][8]
Rama’s life and journey is one of perfect adherence to dharma despite harsh tests of life and time. For the sake of his father’s honour, Rama abandons his claim to Kosala’s throne to serve an exile of fourteen years in the forest.[9] His wife, Sita and brother, Lakshmana being unable to live without Rama decide to join him, and all three spend the fourteen years in exile together. This leads to the kidnapping of Sita by Ravana, the Rakshasa monarch of Lanka. After a long and arduous search that tests his personal strength and virtue, Rama fights a colossal war against Ravana’s armies. In a war of powerful and magical beings, greatly destructive weaponry and battles, Rama slays Ravana in battle and liberates his wife. Having completed his exile, Rama returns to be crowned King in Ayodhya (the capital of his Kingdom) and eventually becomes Emperor of the World,[9] after which he reigns for eleven thousand years – an era of perfect happiness, peace, prosperity and justice known as Rama Rajya.
Rama’s courage in searching for Sita and fighting a terrible war to rescue his wife and their honour is complemented by Sita’s absolute devotion to her husband’s love, and perfect chastity despite being Ravana’s captive. Rama’s younger brothers, namely Lakshmana, Shatrughna and Bharata strongly complement his piety, virtue and strength,[9] and they are believed by many to belong to the Mariyada Purshottama and the Seventh Avatara, mainly embodied by Rama. Rama’s piety and virtue attract powerful and devoted allies such as Hanuman and the Vanaras of Kishkindha, with whose help he rescues Sita.[9] The legend of Rama is deeply influential and popular in the societies of the Indian subcontinent and across South East Asia. Rama is revered for his unending compassion,[10] courage and devotion to religious values and duty.
Contents[hide] |
[edit] Etymology
| Part of a series on Hinduism |
| History · Deities Denominations Literature |
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Dharma · Artha · Kama |
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Vedas · Upanishads |
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Hinduism by country |
Rāmá in the Rigveda and the Atharvaveda is an adjective meaning “dark, black”, or a noun meaning “darkness”, e.g. RV 10.3.3 (trans. Griffith):
- 10.3.3cd Agni, far-spreading with conspicuous lustre, hath compassed Night [Rama] with whitely shining garments.
Rama is made up of ‘Ra’ + ‘ama’ which means light coming from within.
As a personal name it appears in RV 10.93.14:
- 10.93.14ab This to Duhsima Prthavana have I sung, to Vena, Rama, to the nobles [Asuras], and the King.
The feminine form of the adjective, rāmīˊ is an epitheton of the night (Ratri), as is kṛṣṇīˊ, the feminine of kṛṣṇa, viz. “the dark one; the black one”. Mayrhofer (1996) suggests a derivation from PIE (H)reh1-mo-, cognate to OHG rāmac “dirty”.
Two Ramas are mentioned in the Vedas, with the patronymics Mārgaveya and Aupatasvini; another Rama with the patronymic Jāmadagnya is the supposed author of a Rigvedic hymn. According to Monier-Williams, three Ramas were celebrated in post-Vedic times,
- Rāma-chandra (“Rama-moon”), son of Dasaratha, believed to have descended from Raghu[citation needed]. (The Rama of this article).
- Parashu-rāma (“Rama of the Battle-axe“), the Sixth Avatara of Vishnu, sometimes also referred to as Jāmadagnya, or as Bhārgava Rāma (descended from Bhrigu), a “Chiranjeevi” or Immortal.
- Bala-rāma (“the strong Rama”), also called Halāyudha (Wielder of the Plough in Battle), the older brother and close companion of Krishna, the Eighth Avatara of Vishnu.
In the Vishnu sahasranama, Rama is the 394th name of Vishnu. In the interpretation of Adi Sankara’s commentary, translated by Swami Tapasyananda of the Ramakrishna Mission, Rama has two meanings: the supreme Brahman who is the eternally blissful spiritual Self in whom yogis delight or the One (i.e., Vishnu) who out of his own will assumed the enchanting form of Rama, the son of Dasaratha.
[edit] Literary sources
The primary source of the life and journey of Rama is the epic Ramayana as composed by the Rishi Valmiki. However, other scriptures in Sanskrit reflect the life of Ramayana. For example, the Vishnu Purana also recounts Rama as Vishnu’s seventh avatara and in the Vayu Purana, a Rama is mentioned among the seven Rishis of the 8th Manvantara. Additionally, the tales of Rama are reverently spoken of in the later epic, the Mahabharata. Another important shortened version of the epic in Sanskrit is the Aadhyaatma Ramayana.
The epic had many versions across India’s regions. For example, vernacular versions of the Ramayana which include the life, deeds and divine philosophies of Rama are elaborated in the epic poem Kambaramayanam by the 12th century poet, Kamban in Tamil and Ramacharitamanasa, a Hindi version of the Ramayana by the 16th century Saint Tulsidas. Other vernacular versions also exist in most major Indian languages. Contemporary versions of the Ramayana include Sri Ramayana Darshanam by Kuvempu in Kannada and Ramayana Kalpavrikshamu by Viswanatha Satyanarayana in Telugu, both of which have been awarded the Jnanpith Award. The epic has transformed across the diverse regions of India, which boast their own unique languages and cultural traditions.[11]
The essential tale of Rama has also spread across South East Asia, and evolved into unique renditions of the epic – incorporating local history, folktales, religious values as well as unique features from the languages and literary discourse. The Kakawin Ramayana of Java, Indonesia, the Ramakavaca of Bali, Hikayat Seri Rama of Malaysia, Maradia Lawana of the Philippines, Ramakien of Thailand (which calls him Phra Ram) are great works with many unique characteristics and differences in accounts and portrayals of the legend of Rama. The legends of Rama are witnessed in elaborate illustration at the Wat Phra Kaew temple in Bangkok. The national epic of Myanmar, Yama Zatdaw is essentially the Burmese Ramayana, where Rama is named Yama. In the Reamker of Cambodia, Rama is known as Preah Ream. In the Pra Lak Pra Lam of Laos, Buddha is regarded as an incarnation of Rama.
[edit] Avatara
The Ramayana speaks of how the Goddess Earth, Bhumidevi, came to the Lord Creator, Brahma begging to be rescued from evil kings who were plundering her resources and destroying life through bloody wars and evil conduct. The Devas also came to Brahma fearful of the rule of Ravana, the ten-headed rakshasa emperor of Lanka. Ravana had overpowered the Devas and now ruled the heavens, the earth and the netherworlds. Although a powerful and noble monarch, he was also arrogant, destructive and a patron of evil doers. He had boons that gave him immense strength and was invulnerable to all living and celestial beings, except man and animals.[12]
Brahma, Bhumidevi and the Devas worshipped Vishnu, the Preserver, for deliverance from Ravana’s tyrannical rule. Vishnu promised to kill Ravana by incarnating as a man – the eldest son of Kosala’s king Dasaratha.[12] His eternal consort, Lakshmi took birth as Sita and was found by king Janaka of Mithila while he was ploughing a field. Vishnu’s eternal companion, the Ananta Sesha is said to have incarnated as Lakshmana to stay at his Lord’s side on earth. Throughout his life, no one, except himself and a few select sages (among which are included Vasishta, Sharabhanga, Agastya and Vishwamitra) know of his destiny. Rama is continually revered by the many sages he encounters through his life, but only the most learned and exalted know of his true identity. At the end of the war between Rama and Ravana, just as Sita passes her Agni pariskha, Lord Brahma, Indra and the Devas, the celestial sages and Lord Shiva appear out of the sky. They affirm Sita’s purity and ask him to end this terrible test. Thanking the Avatara for delivering the universe from the grips of evil, they reveal Rama’s divine identity upon the culmination of his mission.[13]
[edit] Prince of Ayodhya
King Dasaratha performs a putrakameṣṭi yajña, a sacrifice to obtain offspring by pleasing the gods. He gives the sacred, sacrificial nectar to his three wives according to their seniority: Kousalya, Sumitra and Kaikeyi. On the night of the ninth day after Amavasya, under the asterism of Punarvasu and the cardinal sign of the Crab, Rama was born in the city of Ayodhya, which is the capital of the ancient kingdom of Kosala. The city and the area are located in the central region of the modern state of Uttar Pradesh in India. Rama was the prince of the Suryavamsha (Sun Dynasty) House of Ikshvaku, descendant of great monarchs like Ikshvaku, Raghu and Bhagiratha. He is the eldest brother to Bharata, son of Kaikeyi, and the twin sons of Sumitra, Lakshmana and Shatrughna. Rama is dark-complexioned, mainly bluish – a symbol of divinity.[14]
The Ramayana describes the relationship between the brothers as intensely loving and devotional, although Rama and Lakshmana share a special, inseparable bond, while Bharata is especially close to Shatrughna. The four brothers enjoy an undiscriminating love from Dasaratha and his three queens, but Dasaratha’s main affections are affixed upon Rama. Rama and his brothers are trained by Rishi Vasishta in the Vedas, religion, philosophy and the sciences. They are described as taller than the tallest men of modern times, possessive of exceptional acumen and prowess in the military sciences and arts.[15]
[edit] Initiation of the Avatara
Rama breaking the bow, Raja Ravi Varma (1848–1906)
Sage Vishwamitra takes the two princes, Rama and Lakshmana, to the Swayamvara ceremony for Sita. The challenge is to string the bow of Shiva, and shoot an arrow with it. This task is considered impossible for any ordinary king or living being, as this is the personal weapon of Shiva, more powerful, holy and of divine creation than conceivable. While attempting to string the bow, Rama breaks it into two. This feat of unbelievable strength, to have broken the bow of Shiva, spreads his fame across the worlds and seals his marriage to Sita.[16]
After Rama weds Sita and the entire royal family and the Ayodhya army begin their journey back, the great rishi Parashurama Bhargava appears before them, having descended from his mountainous hermitage. Parashurama is an extremely powerful rishi, responsible for killing all of the world’s warriors and kings 21 times. He was the sixth Avatara of Vishnu, and finds it unbelievable that anybody could break the bow of Shiva. Considering himself to still be the most powerful warrior-rishi on earth, he brings with them the bow of Vishnu, and intends to challenge Rama to prove his strength by stringing it, and then fighting a battle with him to prove superiority.[17] Although the entire Ayodhya army is forestalled by his mystical power, Rama is himself angered. He respectfully bows to Parashurama, and within a twinkling of an eyelid snatches the bow of Vishnu, strings it, places an arrow and points it straight at the challenger’s heart. Rama asks Parashurama what he will give as a target to the arrow in return for his life? At this point, Parashurama feels himself devoid of the tremendous mystical energy he possessed for so long. He realizes that Rama is Vishnu incarnate, his successor and definitely his superior. He accepts Rama’s superiority, devotes his tapasya to him, pays homage to Rama and promises to return to his hermitage and leave the world of men.[18]
Rama then fired the arrow up into the sky with Vishnu’s bow, performing a feat true to his Supreme, divine nature with his natural weapon. His overpowering of Parashurama and using the supreme weapon with incredible ease and perfection dazzle the spectators and his relatives, but no one save Parashurama and Vasishta associate this with his true identity. It is said that the Rama’s arrow is still flying across space, across time and across all of the universe. The day it will return to earth, it is said, it will bring the end of the world. Others say that the flying arrow destroys all evil on earth to uphold dharma and righteousness.[18]
[edit] Another version
Another version of the story is, that Sage Vishvamitra along with Prince Rama and Lakshmana attended the Swayamvara of Princess Sita. To find the best match for his daughter Sita, King Janaka held a test in which the successful contestant was able to lift the bow of Lord Shiva and string it, would be able to wed Sita. However, none of the Kings were able to achieve this task, and disappointed, King Janaka pours out his dilemma and misery. Upon hearing this Lakshmana is enraged and offended that King Janaka did not offer Rama the same test. Upon the invitation of King Janaka, Lord Rama proceeded to the bow of Lord Shiva. Paying reverence to the bow, Rama was able to lift the bow, string it and in the same process broke the bow in two. This event sent a loud thundering sound throughout the whole planet and the noise reached the ears of Parasurama who was at that time meditating and knew that the sound made was the bow of Lord Shiva’s being broken. When Parasurama arrived at the court of King Janaka, he confronted the prince and issued a challenge. This led to a confrontation between Lakshmana and Parusurama, who’s rage was increasing at Lakshmana’s impetuous backtalk. However, Lord Rama without any physical confrontation was able to pacify Parasurama. After calming down Parasurama realised that Rama was Lord Vishnu Incarnate and granted Lord Rama all the weapons he had obtained from his tapas.
[edit] Dharma of exile
King Dasaratha announces to Ayodhya that he plans to crown Rama, his eldest child the Yuvaraja (crown prince). While the news is welcomed by everyone in the kingdom, the mind of queen Kaikeyi is poisoned by her wicked maid-servant, Manthara. Kaikeyi, who is initially pleased for Rama, is made to fear for the safety and future of her son Bharata. Fearing that Rama would ignore or possibly victimize his youngest brother for the sake of power, Kaikeyi demands that Dasaratha banish Rama to a forest exile for fourteen years, and that Bharata be crowned in Rama’s place. She had been granted two boons by the king when she had saved his life a long time ago, and the queen now used them to serve her purpose.[19] The king’s court and the people are outraged at this turn of events. Dasaratha loved and cherished Rama dearly, and was in personal turmoil. Completely estranged now from his younger wife, he abhors the prospect of separation from Rama. But Rama realizes that the king must not break a solemn promise at any time, and neither should a son disobey his father’s command. Sita joins her husband in exile despite his discouraging her, as it is her duty and out of love for Rama that she must be at his side at all times. His younger brother Lakshmana also immediately decides to join Rama rather than remain in the city.[20]
As he leaves for exile, the people of Ayodhya are deeply saddened and angered at Dasaratha and Kaikeyi. Dasaratha’s heart is broken and he collapses and dies by the next day, unable to bear the agony of separation from Rama. Despite the reasoning of Vasishtha and the pleas of his brothers, Rama refuses to return. Although horrified at the news of his father’s death, Rama finds it impossible that he should break his dead father’s word. Rama does not bear any anger towards Kaikeyi, believing firmly in the power of destiny.[21] According to the explanation of the classic, this exile actually presents Rama the opportunity to confront Ravana and his evil empire.
[edit] Rama and Sita
Rama and Sita are the protagonists in one of the most famous love stories of all time. Described as being deeply in love, Sita and Rama are theologically understood as avatars of Lakshmi and Vishnu respectively. When Rama is banished from the kingdom, he attempts to convince Sita not to join him in a potentially dangerous and certainly arduous existence in the jungle, but Sita rejects this. When Rama orders her in his capacity as husband, Sita rejects it, asserting that it was an essential duty of a wife to be at her husband’s side come good or ill.[20] Rama in turn is assiduously protective and caring for Sita throughout the exile.
When Sita is kidnapped by Ravana, both Sita and Rama undergo great personal hardships during their separation. Sita protects her chastity assiduously, and survives over a year in captivity on the strength of her love and attention to religious values and duty. She is completely unfettered in her resolve despite Ravana’s courting, cajoling and threats. Meanwhile Rama, not knowing who had kidnapped Sita or where was she taken, often succumbs to despair and tears, denouncing himself for failing to defend her and agonizing over her safety and pain. Sita knows that it is in Rama’s destiny to fight to rescue her (she refuses to be rescued thus by Hanuman, who discovers her), but is deeply anxious for his safety and fearful of Ravana’s power.
[edit] Agni pariksha
After Rama slays Ravana and wins the war, Sita wants to come before him in the state which over a year’s imprisonment had reduced her to, Rama arranges for Sita to be bathed and given beautiful garments before they are re-united. But even as Sita comes before him in great excitement and happiness, Rama does not look at her, staring fixedly at the ground. He tells her that he had fought the war only to avenge the dishonour that Ravana had inflicted on Rama, and now Sita was free to go where she pleased. At this sudden turn of events, all the vanaras, rakshasas, Sugriva, Hanuman and Lakshmana are deeply shocked.[22]
Sita begs Lakshmana to build her a pyre upon which she could end her life, as she could not live without Rama. At this point, Lakshmana is angered at Rama for the first time in his life, but following Rama’s nod, he builds a pyre for Sita. At the great shock and sorrow of the watchers, Sita walks into the flames. But to their greater shock and wonder, she is completely unharmed. Instead, she glows radiantly from the centre of the pyre. Immediately Rama runs to Sita and embraces her. He had never doubted her purity for a second, but, as he explains to a dazzled Sita, the people of the world would not have accepted or honoured her as a queen or a woman if she had not passed this Agni pariksha before the eyes of millions, where Agni would destroy the impure and sinful, but not touch the pure and innocent.[23]
Another version of this, used in Ramanand Sagar’s RAMAYAN, was that Rama had known Sita was going to be abducted by Ravana ahead of time. So, he entrusted her to Agni Dev, or the God of Fire. Rama did this so that he, who in reality was Vishnu, could kill Ravana. Sita, in turn, left behind a “shadow”, or twin-like version of herself behind. The “shadow” Sita had been abducted by Ravana. Therefore, the lila of Agni Pariksha was to retrieve the genuine Sita from the temporary care of Agni Dev. Rama explains this to Lakshmana before the so-called “Pariksha” is done. This version has also been written in the Ram Charit Manas.
[edit] Sita’s banishment
In the Uttara Kanda, Rama banishes his wife Sita, even as she is pregnant, asking Lakshmana to deliver her safely to Rishi Valmiki’s ashram. He does so when it is reported to him that some subjects of his in Ayodhya believe that Sita is unchaste due to her long captivity in Ravana’s city. The Agni pariksha fails to convince these few critics, but Rama, by his understanding of the dharma of a king, decides to banish Sita. Rama adhered strictly to his duty both as a king and a husband. These conflicted when society thought that Sita was unfit to become queen. But Rama had to send away Sita since his duty of king came first. A legend by Rishi Agastya in the epic states that Vishnu in a previous age had been cursed by a rishi, whose wife had been killed by Vishnu for sheltering his enemies escaping from battle. The Rishi condemns Vishnu to be denied for a long age, the companionship of his soul mate, just as Vishnu, by an inadvertent display of anger, had deprived the rishi of his loving wife. Thus Rama, Vishnu’s incarnation, must live the rest of his life without Sita.[24]
[edit] Maryada Purushottama
As a person, Rama personifies the characteristics of an ideal person (purushottama) who is to be emulated. He had within him all the desirable virtues that any individual would seek to aspire, and he fulfils all his moral obligations (maryada). Rama’s purity and piety in his intentions and actions inspires affection and devotion for him from a variety of characters from different backgrounds. For example, he gave up his rightful claim to the throne, and agreed to go into exile for fourteen years, to fulfill the vow that his father had given to Kaikeyi, one of King Dashratha’s wives. This is in spite of the fact that Kaikeyi’s son, Bharat, begged him to return back to Ayodhya and said that he did not want to rule in place of Rama. But Rama considered his dharma as a son above that of his own birthright and his life’s ambition. For such supreme sacrifices, and many other qualities, Shri Rama is considered a maryada purushottam. Some of his ideals are as follows:
1. At the time when it was normal for kings to have more than one wife, Rama gave ideal of having a single wife. After Sita was banished, he was doing penance with a gold statue of Sita. In Balakanda of Valmiki Ramayana it is written that Rama and Sita resided in each others heart.
2. Rama always followed his promise at any cost. In fact, he went to forest to make his father’s promise to Kaikeyi true. There are many examples of Rama’s promises which he kept. Most important are the promise to sages to save their lives from Rakshasas, getting back Sugreeva’s kingdom, making Vibhishana the king of Lanka.
3. Excellent friend: Rama had very touching relations with his friends irrespective of their status. Some of his friends are Nishad-raj Guh, King of Nishaads (a caste whose profession was hunting the birds), Sugreeva (the Vanar king) and Vibhishana a Rakshasa.
[edit] Rama and non-violence
Rama is always shown with a bow (called Kodanda) on his shoulder. As per Valmiki Ramayana, Sita once enquired as to why her Lord, Rama always carried a bow with him. Sita was upset with Rama’s promise to sages that he offer protection while they performed their sacrificial rituals and therefore petitioned Rama that ‘We are in the forest and we should live life of sages so why wield this weapon?’. Sita then narrated a story about an ancient sage who became violent simply by having a weapon in his possession (in this case a sword). Rama smiled and promised to Sita that he would never attack anybody unless the other person provokes him to do so, a promise that he kept throughout his life. In fact he had always given two chances to his enemies Tataka, Maarich, Vali and even Ravana. He even offered a peace treaty to Ravana before starting the war. Angada took his peace message to Ravana which was declined.
[edit] Companions
Even as Rama is the ideal conception of manhood, he is often aided and complemented in different situations by the characteristics by those who accompany him. They serve Rama devotedly, at great personal risk and sacrifice.
[edit] Bharata and Lakshmana
Absent when Rama is exiled, upon his return Bharata is appalled to learn of the events. And even though Kaikeyi had done all this for his benefit, Bharata is angered at the suggestion that he should take Ayodhya’s throne. Denouncing his mother, Bharata proclaims to the city that he would go to the forest to fetch Rama back, and would serve out his term of exile himself. Although initially resentful and suspicious, the people of Ayodhya hail Bharata’s selfless nature and courageous act. Despite his fervent pleas to return, Rama asserts that he must stay in the forest to keep his father’s word. He orders Bharata to perform his duty as king of Ayodhya, especially important after Dasaratha’s death, and orders Shatrughna to support and serve him. Returning saddened to the city, Bharata refuses to wear the crown or sit on the throne. Instead, he places the slippers of Rama that he had taken back with him on the throne, and rules Ayodhya assiduously keeping Rama’s beliefs and values in mind. When Rama finally returns, Bharata runs personally to welcome him back.
Bharata is hailed for his devotion to his elder brother and dharma, distinguished from Lakshmana as he is left on his own for fourteen years. But he unfailingly denies self-interest throughout this time, ruling the kingdom only in Rama’s image.[25] Vasishtha proclaims that no one had better learnt dharma than Bharata,[26] and for this piety he forms an essential part of the conception of perfect manhood, of the Seventh Avatara of Vishnu. Shatrughna’s role to Bharata is akin to that of Lakshmana to Rama. Believed to be one-quarter of Vishnu incarnated, or as the incarnation of his eternal companion, Ananta Sesha, Lakshmana is always at Rama’s side.[27] Although unconstrained by Dasaratha’s promise to Kaikeyi, Lakshmana resists Rama’s arguments and accompanies him and Sita into the forest. During the years of exile, Lakshmana constantly serves Rama and Sita – building huts, standing guard and finding new routes. When Sita is kidnapped, Rama blazes with his divine power and in his immense rage, expresses the desire to destroy all creation. Lakshmana prays and pleads for Rama to calm himself, and despite the shock of the moment and the promise of travails to come, begin an arduous but systematic search for Sita. During times when the search is proving fruitless and Rama fears for Sita, and expresses despair in his grief and loneliness, Lakshmana encourages him, providing hope and solace.
When Rama in his despair fears that Sugriva has forgotten his promise to help him trace Sita, Lakshmana goes to Kishkindha where he reminds the complacent monarch of his promise to help. But Lakshmana also threatens Sugriva with destruction with his own divine, personal power, unable to tolerate the scene where Sugriva is enjoying material and sensual pleasures while Rama suffers alone. In the war, Lakshmana is uniquely responsible for slaying Indrajit, the invincible son of Ravana who had humiliated Indra and the Devas, and outwitted the brothers and the Vanaras on several occasions. Rishi Agastya later points out that this victory was the turning point of the conflict. Rama is often overcome with emotion and deep affection for Lakshmana, acknowledging how important and crucial Lakshmana’s love and support was for him. He also trusts Lakshmana to carry out difficult orders – Lakshmana was asked to take Sita to the ashrama of Valmiki, where she was to spend her exile. Lakshmana’s deep love for Rama, his unconditional service and sacrifice, as well as qualities of practical judgment and clear-headedness make him Rama’s superior in certain situations and perspectives. Lakshmana symbolizes a man’s duty to his family, brothers and friends, and forms an essential part of the conception of ideal manhood, that Rama primarily embodies.
[edit] Jatayu, Hanuman and Vibheeshana
When Rama and Lakshmana begin the desperate search to discover where Sita had been taken. After traversing a distance in many directions, they come across the magical eagle Jatayu, who is dying. They discover from Jatayu that a rakshasa was flying away with a crying, struggling Sita towards the south. Jatayu had flown to the rescue of Sita, but owing to his age and the rakshasa’s power, had been defeated. With this, Jatayu dies in Rama’s arms. Rama is overcome with love and affection for the bird which sacrificed its own life for Sita, and the rage of his death returns to him in the climactic battle with Ravana.
Rama’s only allies in the struggle to find Sita are the Vanaras of Kishkindha. Finding a terrified Sugriva being hunted by his own brother, king Vali, Rama promises to kill Vali and free Sugriva of the terror and the unjust charge of plotting to murder Vali. The two swear everlasting friendship over sacred fire. Rama’s natural piety and compassion, his sense of justice and duty, as well as his courage despite great personal suffering after Sita’s kidnapping inspire devotion from the Vanaras and Sugriva, but especially Hanuman, Sugriva’s minister. Devoted to Rama, Hanuman exerts himself greatly over the search for Sita. He is the first to discover that Sita was taken to Lanka, and volunteers to use his divine gifts in a dangerous reconnaissance of Lanka, where he is to verify Sita’s presence. Hanuman hands Rama’s ring to Sita, as a mark of Rama’s love and his imminent intention of rescuing her. Though captured, he candidly delivers Rama’s message to Ravana to immediately release Sita, and when his tail is burned, he flees and sets Lanka on fire. When Lakshmana is struck down and near death and Rama overcome with love and concern for his brother, Hanuman flies to the Himalayas on the urgent mission to fetch the sanjeevani medicinal herbs, bringing the entire mountain to Lanka so that no time is lost in saving Lakshmana.[28] The Vanaras fight the rakshasas, completely devoted to Rama’s cause. They angrily dismiss Ravana’s efforts to create divisions by suggesting that Rama considered them, monkeys, as mere animals. At the end of the war, Rama worships Brahma, who restores life to the millions of fallen Vanaras.[29]
Before the onset of war, rakshasa prince Vibheeshana, Ravana’s youngest brother comes to join Rama. Although he loves his brother and Lanka, he fails in repeated efforts to make Ravana follow religious values and return Sita. Vibheeshana believes that Ravana’s arrogance and callousness will cause the destruction of Lanka, which is a gross violation of a king’s duty, and that Ravana’s actions have only propagated evil. Vibheeshana refuses to defend the evil of Ravana’s ways and inspired by Rama’s compassion and piety, leaves Lanka to join the Vanara Army.[30] His knowledge of rakshasa ways and Ravana’s mind help Rama and the Vanaras overcome black magic and mystical weapons. At the end of the war, Rama crowns Vibheeshana as the king of Lanka. Vibheeshana, and to a greater extent Hanuman, embody the perfect devotee in the wider conception of perfect manhood.
[edit] Rama in war
The epic story of Ramayana was adopted by several cultures across Asia. Shown here is a Thai historic artwork depicting the battle which took place between Rama and Ravana.
When Rama is sixteen years old, he and his brother Lakshmana are taken by Vishwamitra to the forests, with the purpose of killing rakshasas who are wrecking the tapasya and sacrifices of brahmins. Rama and Lakshmana are taught the advanced military arts and given the knowledge of all celestial weapons by Vishwamitra. Rama proceeds to slay Thatakhi, a cursed demoness. When asked to slay the yaksha demon, Rama demurs, considering it sinful to kill a woman. But Vishwamitra explains that evil has no gender. The killing of Taraka liberates the yaksha soul who was cursed for a sin, and had to adopt a rakshasi’s body. It restores the purity of the sacrifices of the brahmins who live nearby, and protects the animals who live in the forest, and travelers. The main purpose of Vishwamitra’s exursion is to conduct his yagna without interruption from two evil demons, Maricha and Subahu. Rama and Lakshmana guard the sacrifice, and when the two demons appear, Rama shoots an arrow that carries Maricha across the lands and into the ocean, but does not kill him. Rama and his brother then proceed to kill Subahu and accompanying demons. Rama explains to Lakshmana that leaving Maricha alive was an act of compassion, but the others did not heed the point and chose to attack.[31] During the forest exile, sages plead for protection and help against evil rakshasas who spoil their sacrifices and religious activities and terrorize them. Many rakshasas had even killed and eaten sages and innocent people. At Janasthana, Rama uses his exceptional prowess to single-handedly kill over fourteen thousand demon hordes led by the powerful Khara, who is a cousin of Ravana.
[edit] Sagara
Raja Ravi Varma Painting – ‘Rama Conquers Varuna’
Faced with the dilemma of how to cross the ocean, Rama performs a penance tapasya, fasting and meditating in perfect dhyana for three days and three nights to sagara, the Lord of Oceans. The ocean god does not respond out of arrogance , and Rama on the fourth morning,pointed the brahmastra towards the ocean . The Vanaras are dazzled and fearful at witnessing the enraged Rama demolish the oceans, and Lakshmana prays to calm Rama’s mind. Just as Rama invokes the brahmastra, considered the most powerful weapon capable of destroying all creation, Saagara arises out of the oceans. He bows to Rama, and begs for pardon. Since lord Rama had to use the weapon , he suggests Rama re-direct the weapon at a demonic race that lives in the heart of the ocean. Rama’s arrows destroys the demons, and establishes a purer, liberated environment there. Saagara promises that he would keep the oceans still for all of Rama’s army to pass, and Nala constructs a bridge (Rama’s Bridge) across to Lanka. Rama justifies his angry assault on the oceans as he followed the correct process of petitioning and worshipping Saagara, but obtaining the result by force for the greater good.[32]
In another version of the story, Lord Rama redirected his missile to the barren Island, and as a result huge volcanic eruption resulted. This volcano is the one which is found till today at the southern part of Indian peninsula .
[edit] Facing Ravana
Ravana, Hindu Demon King of Lanka
Rama asserts his dedication to dharma when he undertakes to offer Ravana a final chance to make peace, despite his heinous actions and patronage of evil, by immediately returning Sita and apologizing to both Rama and Sita, but Ravana refuses. In the war, Rama slays the most powerful rakshasa commanders, including Prahasta, Atikaya and with Ravana’s brother, Kumbhakarna along with hundreds of thousands of rakshasa soldiers. He outfights Ravana in their first battle, destroying his chariot and weapons, and severely injuring him, but due to this, he allows him to live and return to fight another day. But as a human being, Rama also proves vulnerable on occasion to his enemies. He is put to a deep sleep with Lakshmana by the nagapoosas of Indrajit, but they recover when Hanuman obtains the magical medicine according to Vibheesana’s advice.
In the grand finale of the battle, Rama engages Ravana, who through the devastation of losing his sons, his brothers and friends and millions of his warriors, arouses his awesome and magical powers and makes full use of the boons of Siva and Brahma, and the magical knowledge of warfare possessed by the greatest of rakshasas. Rama and Ravana compete fiercely, inflicting severe injuries on one another with the most powerful weapons that could destroy the universe. After a long and arduous battle, Rama successfully decapitates Ravana’s central head, but an ugly head, symbolic of all of Ravana’s evil powers arises in its place. After another long battle, Rama decapitates it, only to find another growing in its place. This cycle continues, and as darkness approaches, Ravana’s magical powers increase in force. Vibheeshana, seeing this then tells Rama something vital. Ravana had obtained amrita, the nectar of immortality, from the gods. Though he could not consume it, he nevertheless stored a vessel of it in his stomach. This amrit was causing his heads to regenerate as soon as they were cut off. Upon the advice of Agastya, Rama worships Lord Aditya, the Sun, with the famous Aditya Hridayam prayer and then invokes the most powerful weapon, the Brahmastra. Rama fires the great arrow that enters Ravana’s chest/stomach and destroys the store of amrit, killing him finally.[33] Following Ravana’s death, Rama is immediately compassionate. After investing Vibheeshana as the next king of Lanka, he asks the new king and the surviving rakshasas to properly cremate their dead king, who he acknowledges was a great being worthy of respect and admiration, despite his patronage of evil.[34]
[edit] Rama Rajya
The end of the war coincides with the end of Rama’s tenure of exile. Flying home on the Pushpaka Vimana, Rama returns to a joyous Ayodhya. His mothers, brothers and the people joyously welcome him. Kaikeyi is repentant of her deeds, and Rama forgives her. The next day, Rama is invested as the King of Ayodhya, and Emperor of the World. Although he first asks Lakshmana to become the yuvaraja, upon the advice of Lakshmana he invests the position to Bharata, who has had fourteen years of experience as the ruler of Ayodhya. Rama performs the holy Ashwamedha sacrifice, purifying and establishing religion across earth.[35]
Beyond the Ramayana, the eleven thousand years of Rama’s rule over the earth represent to millions of modern Indians a time and age when God as a man ruled the world. There was perfect justice and freedom, peace and prosperity. There are no natural disasters, diseases, ailments or ill-fortune of any nature for any living being. There are no sins committed in the world by any of his people. Always attentive and accessible to his people, Rama is worshipped and hailed by all – the very symbol of moksha, the ultimate goal and destination of all life, and the best example of perfect character and human conduct, inspiring human beings for countless succeeding ages.
Rama like other Indian kings went undercover every night to hear the pleas of his subjects and have a common man’s perspective of his rule. During Rama’s tenure as King, the people apparently had no locks on their doors as they feared no burglaries or other such misfortunes.
[edit] Rama and the world
Deities of Sri Sri Sita (far right), Rama (center), Lakshmana (far left) and Hanuman (below seated) at Bhaktivedanta Manor, a temple in Watford England
Be it as a manifestation of God or simply as a legendary hero of myths and folktales, Rama is an immensely revered and inspirational figure to people across the Indian subcontinent and South East Asia, as well as increasingly across Western civilization, where the Hindu epics and values are gaining recognition and popularity. In Jainism, Rama is enumerated among the nine white Balas. He is revered in Sikhism,(in the Guru Granth Sahib)[citation needed]
Rama is a great hero to the adherents of Agama Hindu Dharma and to the Muslims who practice Abangan, a syncretic form of Islam and Hinduism, in Indonesia. He is revered by the people of Thailand, Malaysia, Myanmar, Cambodia and Vietnam, who otherwise adhere to different forms of Buddhism, Islam and Hinduism. The Rama Leela is performed across South East Asia in numerous local languages and the story has been the subject of art, architecture, music, folk dance and sculpture. The ancient city of Ayutthaya stands in Thailand, as the tribute of an ancient Thai kingdom to the great legend. Many ancient and medieval era kings of South East Asia have adopted Rama as their name.
A Buddhist version of the tale is found in the Jataka stories, in the Dasharatha Jataka (Jataka Atthakatha 461) in the Pali vernacular. Here Rama is represented as a former life of the Buddha as a Bodhisatva and supreme Dharma King of great wisdom. In the Buddhist tale, he is the king of Varanasi and not Ayodhya, which is traditionally the capital of Kosala.
[edit] Festivals of Lord Rama
Rama’s day and time of birth, as well as marriage to Sita are celebrated by Hindus across the world as Rama Navami. It falls on the ninth day of a Hindu lunar year, or Chaitra Masa Suklapaksha Navami. This day is observed as the marriage day of Rama and Sita as well as the birthday of Rama. People normally perform Kalyanotsavam (marriage celebration) for small statues of Rama and Sita in their houses and at the end of the day the idols are taken in a procession on the streets. This day also marks the end of nine day utsavam called Vasanthothsavam (Festival of Spring), that starts with Ugadi. Some highlights of this day are:
- Kalyanam (Ceremonial wedding performed by temple priests) at Bhadrachalam on the banks of the river Godavari in Khammam district of Andhra Pradesh.
- Panakam, a sweet drink prepared on this day with jaggery and pepper.
- Procession of idols in the evening that is accompanied with play of water and colours.
- For the occasion, Hindus are supposed to fast (or restrict themselves to a specific diet).
- Temples are decorated and readings of the Ramayana take place. Along with Rama, people also pray to Sita, Lakshmana and Hanumana.
The occasion of victory over Ravana and the rakshasas is celebrated as the 10-day Vijayadashami, also known as Dussehra. The Ram Leela is publicly performed in many villages, towns and cities in India. Rama’s return to Ayodhya and his coronation are celebrated as Diwali, also known as the Festival of Lights. The latter two are the most important and popular festivals in India and for Hindus across the world. In Malaysia, Diwali is known as Hari Deepavali, and is celebrated during the seventh month of the Hindu solar calendar. It is a federal public holiday. In many respects it resembles the traditions followed in the Indian subcontinent. In Nepal, Diwali is known as Tihar and celebrated during the October/November period. Here, though the festival is celebrated for five days, the traditions vary from those followed in India. On the first day, cows are worshipped and given offerings. On the second day, dogs are revered and offered special food. On the third day, celebrations follow the same pattern as in India, with lights and lamps and much social activity. On the fourth day Yama, the Lord of Death, is worshipped and appeased. On the fifth and final day, brothers sisters meet and exchange pleasantries. In Trinidad and Tobago, Diwali is marked as a special occasion and celebrated with a lot of fanfare. It is observed as a national holiday in this part of the world and some ministers of the Government also take part in the celebrations publicly.
[edit] Inspiration
Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi, the Indian spiritual and political leader was deeply inspired by Rama’s strict adherence of satya (truth) and dharma despite hardship and personal travails. Gandhi was encouraged by Rama’s example when he faced personal crises and crucial difficulties. A chapter in his autobiography is titled the same: Nirbal ke Bal Ram (Rama is the strength for the weak). On religious occasions, Hindus often chant the name of Rama to express their devotion to God and invoke the holy. Ram Naam Japo (Chant the name of Rama) is a popular bhajan, devotional song and a meditative mantra. In the ceremony of cremating the dead, Hindus often chant Ram Nam Satya Hai (Rama’s name is Truth).
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IITS
August 9, 2008 by bhaumikIndian Institutes of Technology
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Chennai
Delhi
Guwahati
Kanpur
Kharagpur
Mumbai
Roorkee
Bhubaneshwar
Gandhinagar
Hyderabad
Indore
Jaipur
Mandi
Patna
Ropar
Varanasi
Location of the existing (red) and proposed (green) IITs.
The Indian Institutes of Technology (IITs), are a group of seven autonomous engineering and technology-oriented institutes of higher education established and declared as Institutes of National Importance by the Government of India. The IITs were created to train scientists and engineers, with the aim of developing a skilled workforce to support the economic and social development of India after independence in 1947. The students and alumni of IITs are colloquially referred to as IITians.
In order of establishment the seven IITs are located at Kharagpur, Mumbai (Bombay), Chennai (Madras), Kanpur, Delhi, Guwahati, and Roorkee. The Government of India has announced plans to add nine more IITs, to be established in states that don’t yet have an IIT. Some IITs were established with financial assistance and technical expertise from UNESCO, Germany, the United States, and Russia.[citation needed] Each IIT is an autonomous university, linked to the others through a common IIT Council, which oversees their administration. They have a common admission process for undergraduate admissions, using the Joint Entrance Examination (popularly known as IIT-JEE) to select around 4,000 undergraduate candidates a year. Postgraduate Admissions are done on the basis of the GATE, JAM and CEED. About 15,500 undergraduate and 12,000 graduate students study in the seven IITs, in addition to research scholars.
IIT alumni have achieved success in a variety of professions.[1] The autonomy of the IITs has helped them to create specialised degrees in technology at the undergraduate level, and consequently to award the Bachelor of Technology (B.Tech.) degree, as opposed to the Bachelor of Engineering (BE) degree awarded by most other Indian universities. The success of the IITs has led to the creation of similar institutes in other fields, such as the National Institutes of Technology and the Institutes of Information Technology (IIIT).
Contents[hide] |
[edit] The Institutes
Main Building of IIT Kharagpur.
The seven IITs are located in Kharagpur, Bombay, Madras, Kanpur, Delhi, Guwahati, and Roorkee. With the plan to setup eight more IITs in the states of Rajasthan, Bihar, Andhra Pradesh, Himachal Pradesh, Orissa, Madhya Pradesh, Gujarat and Punjab, and the conversion of IT-BHU to an IIT, the total number of IITs will be increased to 16.[2] Six of the eight proposed new IITs, namely, Rajasthan, Bihar (Patna), Andhra Pradesh (Hyderabad), Orissa (Bhubaneshwar), Gujarat (Gandhinagar) and Punjab, are functional as of June 2008 and admitting students for the 2008-’09 academic year.[3] All IITs are autonomous universities that draft their own curricula, and they are, with the exception of IIT Kanpur, members of LAOTSE, an international network of universities in Europe and Asia. LAOTSE membership allows the IITs to exchange students and senior scholars with universities in other countries.[4]
The first IIT was established in 1951, in Kharagpur (near Kolkata) in the state of West Bengal. It has 29 academic departments, centres and schools, spread over a 8.5 km² (2,100 acre) campus that is a self-contained township of over 15,000 inhabitants. It has about 450 faculty, 2,200 employees, 3,000 undergraduates and 2,500 postgraduates. The students live in 17 hostels (called Halls of Residence). IIT Kharagpur also has a medical technology school (School of Medical Science and Technology), a management school (Vinod Gupta School of Management) and a law school (Rajiv Gandhi School of Intellectual Property Law) within its premises. Its central library is the largest technical library in Asia.[5]
Main Building of IIT Bombay
The second IIT to be established, IIT Bombay, was founded in 1958 in Powai, Mumbai (Bombay). It was set up with assistance from UNESCO and the Soviet Union, which provided technical expertise. The Indian government underwrote all other expenses, including the construction costs.[6] With an area of 2.23 km² (550 acres) and a total of 24 departments, centres and schools, it is the largest university in the state of Maharashtra. In addition, IIT Bombay has 13 student hostels with about 2,200 undergraduate and 2,000 postgraduate students. IIT Bombay also has schools in management (Shailesh J. Mehta School of Management) and information technology (Kanwal Rekhi School of Information Technology) on its premises. Despite a change in the name of the city, the IIT retains the original name.
IIT Madras is located in the city of Chennai in Tamil Nadu. It was established in 1959 with technical assistance from the Government of West Germany[7] and has nearly 360 faculty and approximately 2,500 undergraduate and 2,000 postgraduate students. The campus is spread over an area of about 2.5 km² (620 acres), and has 16 academic departments, nearly 100 laboratories, and 17 hostels. As with IIT Bombay, it retains its original name despite a change in the name of its city. It is the only IIT to offer a 5-year integrted MA programme in Humanities and the social scinces; the admission to which takes place via an entrance exam- the IIT-Humanities and Social sciences Entrance Exam(IIT-HSEE).
Mathematics department in IIT Delhi with Main Building in background.
IIT Kanpur was established in 1959 in the city of Kanpur, Uttar Pradesh. During its first 10 years, IIT Kanpur benefited from the Kanpur–Indo-American Programme, where a consortium of nine US universities helped to set up the research laboratories and academic programmes.[8] It covers an area of 4.85 km² (1,200 acres). It has approximately 500 faculty members, and about 2,000 undergraduate and an equal number of postgraduate students live in 10 hostels.
Established as the College of Engineering in 1961, IIT Delhi was given the current name and declared an Institution of National Importance under the “Institutes of Technology (Amendment) Act, 1963“.[9] It is located in Hauz Khas (New Delhi) and has an area of 1.3 km² (320 acres). It has 11 hostels and 26 departments, centres and schools. It has 426 faculty members and approximately 2,200 undergraduate and 1,600 postgraduate students.
Aerial view of IIT Guwahati.
IIT Guwahati was established in 1994 near the city of Guwahati (Assam) on the northern banks of the Brahmaputra River. The sprawling 2.85 km² (705 acres) campus attracts many visitors because of its scenic beauty.[10] There are approximately 1,300 undergraduate and 500 postgraduate students in 14 departments, which have a total of 152 faculty members.[11]
Main (Administrative) Building, IIT Roorkee.
IIT Roorkee, originally known as the University of Roorkee, was established in 1847 as the first engineering college of the British Empire.[12] Located in Uttarakhand, the college was renamed The Thomson College of Civil Engineering in 1854. It became first technical university of India in 1949 and was renamed “University of Roorkee”. The University of Roorkee was included in the IIT system in 2001 as IIT Roorkee. It runs eleven Under Graduate, five Integrated Dual Degree, three Integrated M.Tech., three Integrated M.Sc., 61 Post Graduate and several Doctoral Programmes[13].The campus also includes the Department of Management Studies (DOMS), offering MBA courses. It has an academic staff strength of 342 as per the session of 2007-2008[14]. The Institute has two campuses. The main campus is at Roorkee in Uttarakhand and the other one is 50 km away at Saharanpur in Uttar Pradesh. The campus at Roorkee is spread over 356 acres (1.44 km²) of landscaped lush greenery and has twelve students hostels. A 10 acre campus is being developed as an extension centre at Greater Noida.[15]
[edit] History
The office of the Hijli Detention Camp (photographed September 1951) served as the first academic building of IIT Kharagpur.
The history of the IIT system dates back to 1946 when Sir Jogendra Singh of the Viceroy’s Executive Council set up a committee whose task was to consider the creation of Higher Technical Institutions for post-war industrial development in India. The 22-member committee, headed by Nalini Ranjan Sarkar, recommended the establishment of these institutions in various parts of India, with affiliated secondary institutions. The committee felt that such institutes should not only produce undergraduates, but researchers and academics. The institutes were expected to maintain high educational standards.
With these recommendations in view, the first Indian Institute of Technology was founded in May 1950 at the site of the Hijli Detention Camp in Kharagpur. On September 15, 1956, the Parliament of India passed the Indian Institute of Technology (Kharagpur) Act, declaring it as an Institute of National Importance. Jawaharlal Nehru, first Prime Minister of India, in the first convocation address of IIT Kharagpur in 1956 said:[16]
| “ | Here in the place of that Hijli Detention Camp stands the fine monument of India, representing India’s urges, India’s future in the making. This picture seems to me symbolical of the changes that are coming to India. | ” |
On the recommendations of the Sarkar Committee, four campuses were established at Mumbai (1958), Chennai (1959), Kanpur (1959), and Delhi (1961). The location of these campuses was chosen to be scattered throughout India to prevent regional imbalance.[17] The Indian Institutes of Technology Act was amended to reflect the addition of new IITs.[18] Student agitations in the state of Assam made Prime Minister Rajiv Gandhi promise the creation of a new IIT in Assam. This led to a sixth campus at Guwahati under the Assam Accord in 1994. The University of Roorkee, India’s oldest engineering college, was conferred IIT status in 2001.
Institute of Technology (Banaras Hindu University) is a candidate to become an IIT.
Over the past few years, there have been a number of developments toward establishing new IITs. On October 1, 2003, Prime Minister Atal Bihari Vajpayee announced plans to create more IITs “by upgrading existing academic institutions that have the necessary promise and potential”.[19] Subsequent developments led to the formation of the S K Joshi Committee in November 2003 to guide the selection of the five institutions which would become the five new IITs. Based on the initial recommendations of the Sarkar Committee, it was decided that further IITs should be spread throughout the country. When the government expressed its willingness to correct this regional imbalance, 16 states demanded IITs. Since the S K Joshi Committee prescribed strict guidelines for institutions aspiring to be IITs,[20] only seven colleges were selected for final consideration.[21] Plans are also reported to open IITs outside India, though not enough progress has been made in this regard.[22] Eventually in the 11th Five year plan, eight states were identified for establishment of new IITs, and IT-BHU was recommended to be converted in to IIT.[2]
[edit] Organisational structure
Organisational Structure of IITs.
The President of India is the most powerful person in the organisational structure of IITs, being the ex officio Visitor,[23] and having residual powers. Directly under the President is the IIT Council, which comprises the minister-in-charge of technical education in the Union Government, the Chairmen of all IITs, the Directors of all IITs, the Chairman of the University Grants Commission, the Director General of CSIR, the Chairman of IISc, the Director of IISc, three members of Parliament, the Joint Council Secretary of Ministry of Human Resource and Development, and three appointees each of the Union Government, AICTE, and the Visitor.[24]
Under the IIT Council is the Board of Governors of each IIT. Under the Board of Governors is the Director, who is the chief academic and executive officer of the IIT.[25] Under the Director, in the organisational structure, comes the Deputy Director. Under the Director and the Deputy Director, come the Deans, Heads of Departments, Registrar, President of the Students’ Council, and Chairman of the Hall Management Committee. The Registrar is the chief administrative officer of the IIT and overviews the day-to-day operations.[25] Below the Heads of Department (HOD) are the faculty members (Professors, Associate Professors, and Assistant Professors). The Wardens come under the Chairman of the Hall Management Committee.[26]
[edit] Admission
Admission to undergraduate B.Tech and integrated M.Tech programs are through IIT-JEE (the Joint Entrance Examination) in which around 300,000 students appear annually out of which only 5,500 get selected. Admission to most postgraduate courses in IITs is granted through various written entrance examinations: GATE (for M.Tech.), JAM (for M.Sc.) and CEED (for M.Des.). The admission for Ph.D. program is based primarily on a personal interview, though candidates may also have to appear for written tests. The IITs are also well known for their special reservation policy, which is significantly different from the one applied in other educational institutions of India.
[edit] Entrance examinations
Entrance of IIT Madras
Admission to undergraduate programs in all IITs is tied to the Joint Entrance Examination, popularly known as IIT-JEE. Candidates opting for the B.Arch. (Bachelor of Architecture) program in IIT Kharagpur, and the B.Des. (Bachelor of Design) program in IIT Guwahati, have to clear an aptitude test as well. Candidates who qualify admission via IIT-JEE can apply for admission in B.Tech. (Bachelor of Technology), Dual Degree (Integrated Bachelor of Technology and Master of Technology) and Integrated M.Sc. (Master of Sciences) courses in IITs, IT-BHU and ISM Dhanbad. IIT-JEE is a science-oriented entrance exam, testing candidate’s knowledge of mathematics, physics and chemistry. It is conducted by an IIT chosen by a policy of rotation. Admission is very competitive, given the huge population of India; the undergraduate acceptance rate through JEE has a low ratio (around 1 in 60) with about 300,000[27] annual test takers for about 5,500 seats.[28] Only about 4,000 of these seats are offered by IITs, the rest belonging to other institutes that use IIT-JEE. Only students who have completed their 12th and secured at least 60% in their exam (higher secondary studies from a recognised educational board) are allowed to appear for IIT-JEE. The IIT-JEE is well known for frequently changing the types of questions asked in order to discourage study by rote. Since IIT-JEE 2006, the format of the question paper was changed to a single objective test-based paper, replacing the earlier system that employed two tests. The candidates belonging to the general category must secure a minimum aggregate of 60% marks in the qualifying examination of the XIIth standard organised by various educational boards of India. Candidates belonging to Scheduled Caste (SC), Scheduled Tribe (ST) and Physically Disabled (PD) categories must secure a minimum aggregate of 55% in the qualifying examination.[29] The upper age limit for appearing for the IIT-JEE is 25 years. The age limit is relaxed to 30 years for candidates classified in the SC, ST and PD categories. Starting with IIT-JEE 2007, a candidate can take IIT-JEE a maximum of two times, and students who are selected for an IIT cannot attempt the examination again.[29] Students select their institute and department of study based on what is available at the time of their counselling and interview that follows the IIT-JEE result. The interviews are usually spread over five days.
The admissions into the postgraduate programmes are made through various exams, primarily the Graduate Aptitude Test in Engineering (GATE) for Ph.D., M.Tech., and some MS courses. This exam tests the conceptual clarity in technical subjects and is one of the most difficult in the country.Other prominent entrance exams include JAM (Joint Admission to M.Sc.) for M.Sc., and JMET (Joint Management Entrance Test) for Management Studies.
[edit] Reservation policy
India is one of the countries[30] that practices a form of affirmative action (known by critics as reverse discrimination) on caste-based reserved quotas. As per the provisions in the Indian constitution, the IITs have been reserving seats for Scheduled Castes of society since 1973. The IITs follow a reservation policy that is notably different from the quota policy elsewhere in India. As per the rules of admission to IITs, 15% of the admitted students must be of the Scheduled Castes, and 7.5% of seats are reserved for Scheduled Tribes.[31] The Other Backward classes have been provided with 27% reservation in effect from 2008 with the consent of the Supreme Court of India. As per the rules, all the Scheduled Caste (SC) and Scheduled Tribe (ST) candidates must take the IIT-JEE with the rest of the students. Based on the results of IIT-JEE.[31] Another group of candidates who do not meet this relaxed admission criteria are offered a “Preparatory Course” comprising of English, Physics, Chemistry and Mathematics at the IIT concerned. After one year of study, those candidates who are able to secure a grade higher than the prescribed cut-off mark during end-of-semester exams are allowed to continue regular studies. There is no relaxation on the criteria for passing the exams or graduating a course. The candidates admitted through the reservation policy are also subjected to the same criteria as the general candidates for graduation.
In 1989, Prime Minister V. P. Singh accepted and implemented the proposals of the Mandal Commission that recommended provisions of reservations for OBCs in private unaided institutions as well as high-end government jobs for minority communities. No changes took place in the IITs because of the legislation, but in 2005, based on the recommendations of a political panel, the UPA government proposed to implement the reserved-quota system for the OBCs in IITs and IIMs. It received critical objections by many scholars and critics, who described the proposal as “dangerous and divisive” and based solely on political (vote-bank) purposes. Many argued that the OBCs are not a backward community and enjoy good economic and social status and thus a reservation for OBCs becomes a mere strategy to gain votes. Though, the issue has simmered down as of now, it still remains a very hotly argued one.[32] When the government planned to implement the quota system, anti-reservation protests were organised throughout India against the proposal. Student agitations also took place in the IITs and many students who opposed caste-based reservations resorted to hunger strikes. They labelled the quota system as a government tactic to earn cheap votes, and that the system would lead to increased casteism and a severe compromise on merit and talent.[33]
The additional procedures for admission into the IITs (the preparatory course and the qualifying end-of-semester exams that follow) have also been criticised as unnecessary and counter-productive. One of the arguments opposing the modified policy of reservation and favouring direct admission is that a large number of seats remain vacant under the present scheme.[34]
[edit] Education
PK Kelkar Library, IIT Kanpur.
The IITs receive disproportionately high grants compared to other engineering colleges in India.[35] While the total government funding to most other engineering colleges is around Rs. 100–200 million per year, the amount varies between Rs. 900–1,300 million per year for each IIT.[21] Other sources of funds include student fees and research funding from industry. This has translated into superior infrastructure and better faculty in the IITs and consequently higher competition among students to gain admissions into the IITs. The faculty-to-student ratio in the IITs is between 1:6 and 1:8.[36] The Standing Committee of IIT Council (SCIC) prescribes the lower limit for faculty-to-student ratio as 1:9, applied department wise. The IITs subsidise undergraduate student fees by approximately 80% and provide scholarships to all Master of Technology students and Research Scholars in order to encourage students for higher studies, per the recommendations of the Thacker Committee (1959–1961).[37] The cost borne by undergraduate students including boarding and mess expenses is around Rs. 50,000 per annum.
The various IITs function autonomously, and their special status as Institutes of National Importance facilitates the smooth running of IITs, virtually free from both regional as well as student politics. Such autonomy means that IITs can create their own curricula and adapt rapidly to the changes in educational requirements, free from bureaucratic hurdles. The government has no direct control over internal policy decisions of IITs (like faculty recruitment and curricula) but has representation on the IIT Council. The medium of instruction in all IITs is English.[38] The classes are usually held between 7:30 a.m. and 5:30 p.m., though there are some variations within each IIT. All the IITs have public libraries for the use of their students. In addition to a collection of prescribed books, the libraries have sections for fiction and other literary genres. The electronic libraries allow students to access on-line journals and periodicals.
The academic policies of each IIT are decided by its Senate. This comprises all professors of the IIT and student representatives. Unlike many western universities that have an elected senate, the IITs have an academic senate. It controls and approves the curriculum, courses, examinations and results, and appoints committees to look into specific academic matters. The teaching, training and research activities of the institute are periodically reviewed by the senate to maintain educational standards.[39] The Director of an IIT is the ex-officio Chairman of the Senate.
Central Library, IIT Roorkee.
All the IITs follow the credits system of performance evaluation, with proportional weighting of courses based on their importance. The total marks (usually out of 100) form the basis of grades, with a grade value (out of 10) assigned to a range of marks. Sometimes, relative grading is done considering the overall performance of the whole class. For each semester, the students are graded on a scale of 0 to 10 based on their performance, by taking a weighted average of the grade points from all the courses, with their respective credit points. Each semester evaluation is done independently and then the weighted average over all semesters is used to calculate the cumulative grade point average (known as CGPA or CPI—Cumulative Performance Index).
[edit] Undergraduate education
IIT Madras Library.
The B.Tech. degree is the most common undergraduate degree in the IITs in terms of student enrolment, although Dual Degrees, Integrated (five-year) Master of Science and Master of Arts degrees are also offered. The B.Tech course is based on a 4-year program with eight semesters,[40] while the Dual Degree course is a 5-year program with ten semesters. In all IITs, the first year of B.Tech. and Dual Degree courses are marked by a common course structure for all the students,[41] though in some IITs, a single department introduction related course is also included.[42] The common courses include the basics from most of the departments like Electronics, Mechanics, Chemistry, and Physics. At the end of first year (the end of first semester at IIT Madras), an option to change departments is given to meritorious students on the basis of their performance in the first two semesters.[43] Few such changes ultimately take place as the criteria for them are usually strict,[43] limited to the most meritorious students.
From the second year onwards, the students study subjects exclusively from their respective departments.[44] In addition to these, the students have to take compulsory advanced courses from other departments in order to broaden their education. Separate compulsory courses from humanities and social sciences department, and sometimes management courses are also enforced.[45] At the end of third year, the undergraduate students have to undertake a summer project at an industry or reputed academic institute as part of the curriculum. In the last year of their studies, most of the students are placed into industries and organisations via the placement process of the respective IIT, though some students opt out of this either when going for higher studies or when they take up jobs by applying to the companies directly.[46]
[edit] Postgraduate and doctoral education
The IITs offer a number of postgraduate programs including Master of Technology (M.Tech.), Master of Business Administration (MBA) (only for engineers and post graduates in science), and Master of Science (M.Sc.). Some IITs offer specialised graduate programmes such as the Post Graduate Diploma in Information Technology (PGDIT), Master in Medical Science and Technology (MMST), Master of City Planning (MCP), Postgraduate Diploma in Intellectual Property Law (PGDIPL), Master of Design (M.Des), and the Postgraduate Diploma in Maritime Operation & Management (PGDMOM). The IITs also offer the Doctor of Philosophy degree (Ph.D.) as part of their doctoral education programme. In it, the candidates are given a topic of academic interest by the professor or have to work on a consultancy project given by the industries. The duration of the program is usually unspecified and depends on the specific discipline. Ph.D. candidates have to submit a dissertation as well as provide an oral defence for their thesis. Teaching Assistantships (TA) and Research Assistantships (RA) are often provided. Some of the IITs offer an M.S. (by research) program; the M.Tech. and M.S. are similar to the US universities’ non-thesis (course based) and thesis (research based) masters programs respectively. The IITs, along with NITs and IISc, account for nearly 80% of all PhDs in engineering.[47]
The IITs also offer an unconventional B.Tech. and M.Tech. integrated educational program called “Dual Degree”. It integrates undergraduate and postgraduate studies in selected areas of specialisation. It is completed in five years[48] as against six years in conventional B.Tech. (four years) followed by an M.Tech. (two years).[49] This programme was started to allow IITians to complete postgraduate studies from IIT rather than having to go to another institute. All IITs (except IIT Guwahati) have schools of management offering degrees in management or business administration.
- See also: Education in India and IIT Schools of Management
[edit] Culture and student life
Open-air theatre in IIT Madras. It is used to host technical and cultural events.
All the IITs provide on-campus residential facilities to the students, research scholars and faculty. The students live in hostels (sometimes referred to as halls) throughout their stay in the IIT. Students in all IITs must choose between National Cadet Corps (NCC), National Service Scheme (NSS) and National Sports Organisation (NSO) in their first years.[50] All the IITs have sports grounds for cricket, football(soccer), hockey, volleyball, lawn tennis, badminton, and athletics; and swimming pools for aquatic events. Usually the hostels also have their own sports grounds.
[edit] Technical and cultural festivals
All IITs organise annual technical festivals, typically lasting three or four days. The technical festivals are Cognizance (IIT Roorkee), Shaastra (IIT Madras), Techkriti (IIT Kanpur), Kshitij (IIT Kharagpur), Techfest (IIT Bombay), Tryst (IIT Delhi), and Techniche (IIT Guwahati). Most of them are organised in the months of February or March. While Techfest is most popular in terms of participants and visitors involved, Shaastra holds the distinction of being the first student-managed event in the world to implement a formal Quality Management System, earning the ISO 9001:2000 certification.[51]
Annual cultural festivals are also organised by the IITs and last three to four days. These include Thomso (IIT Roorkee), Mood Indigo (IIT Bombay) (also known as Mood-I), Spring Fest (IIT Kharagpur) (also known as SF), Saarang (IIT Madras) (previously Mardi Gras), Antaragni (IIT Kanpur), Alcheringa (IIT Guwahati), and Rendezvous (IIT Delhi).
Illumination festival in IIT Kharagpur. The outlines are made by earthen lamps.
In addition to these cultural festivals, IIT Kharagpur and IIT Bombay celebrate unique festivals. IIT Kharagpur celebrates the Illumination festival on the eve of Diwali. Large bamboo structures (called chatais) as high as 6 meters (20 ft) are made and earthen lamps (diyas) are placed on them to form outlines of people, monuments, or an event.[52] Although the competition is held between hostels, it also receives entries by outside visitors. Coupled with the Illumination festival is the Rangoli festival. In Rangoli, large panels showing an event or a concept, are made on the ground by fine powder, and sometimes even by crushed bangles.
Unique to IIT Bombay is the Performing Arts Festival (popularly known as PAF). Technically a drama, each PAF includes drama, literature, music, fine arts, debating, and dance. All PAFs are held in the Open Air Theater (OAT), on the main campus of IIT Bombay. Typically two or three hostels (of 14) group together by random draw for each PAF. All of the dialogues are delivered as voice overs and not by the actors, mainly due to the structure and the huge size of the OAT.
A volleyball event at Inter IIT Sports Meet-2004.
[edit] Inter-IIT sports meet
The IITs compete among themselves in a number of sports events held under the aegis of the Annual Inter-IIT Sports Meet. Started in 1961, the competition is held every December at an IIT chosen by rotation. The award consists of a running shield that is passed over to the winning IIT. The winner is decided based on the weighted sum of the points earned in various events held over a period of five days. Separate events for men and women are held and points are tallied separately for determining the final winner of the General Championship.[53]
The 12 events included in the Inter-IIT Sports are athletics, badminton, basketball, cricket, football, hockey, swimming, lawn and squash tennis, table tennis, volleyball, water polo and weightlifting. As swimming and water polo are played in water, which is usually cold in the month of December, the Inter-IIT Sports Meet for them is held in the first week of October, and is called Inter-IIT Aquatics Meet.[54][dead link]
[edit] Recognition
The degrees provided by IITs are recognised by the AICTE and hence recognised by all institutions in India. Even outside India, IIT degrees are respected, largely due to the prestige of the IITs as created by their alumni. One of the contributing factors behind the success of IITs is the special status of the IITs as Institutes of National Importance under the Indian Institute of Technology Act. The IIT Act ensures that the IITs have special privileges and lays the foundation for them to evolve as world-class institutes. The autonomy ensured by the Act enables the IITs to implement changes quickly, to keep up with changing scenarios in both the educational world, and society in general. Student politics in IITs is kept under control with strict vigilance over the way student body elections are held. The IIT-JEE is another important factor behind the success of IITs, as it enables the IITs to accept only a select group of meritorious students. This combination of success factors has led to the concept of the IIT Brand.[55] Other factors that have contributed to the success of IITs are stringent faculty recruitment procedures and industry collaboration. The procedure for selection of faculty in IITs is stricter as compared to other colleges offering similar degrees.[56] The Ph.D. degree is a pre-requisite for all regular faculty appointments. The IITs have better interaction with various industries as compared to most other Indian colleges. The IITs are also considered highly successful institutions compared to other engineering colleges in India according to a number of educational surveys.
The view that IIT graduates are intelligent and hardworking people has been established by the success of IITians. Former IIT students get greater respect from their peers, academia and industry in general.[57] The IIT brand was reaffirmed when the United States House of Representatives passed a resolution honoring Indian Americans and especially graduates of IIT for their contributions to the American society.[1] Similarly, China also recognised the value of IITs and planned to replicate the model.[58]
[edit] Educational rankings
Most IITs are consistently ranked above other engineering colleges in India in engineering education surveys,[59] with regard to quality of faculty, teaching standards, research facilities and campus placements. In international surveys, the IITs achieve top rankings. The Times Higher Education Supplement (2005)ranked the IITs in the top 3 world universities. The IITs performed better in the Technology category of rankings. IIT Bombay and IIT Delhi were ranked 33rd and 37th respectively in the Technology category. [60] In the Shanghai Jiao Tong University’s Academic Ranking of World Universities, only one IIT (IIT Kharagpur) was listed among the top 500 universities worldwide.[61] The IITs fall short in many parameters that are considered for educational rankings. The criteria for ranking[62] prominently include internationally recognised research output, in which the IITs do not achieve notable success.[63] Another criterion being the Social Science Citation Index, the rank of IITs suffers as they do not have large departments of liberal arts and social sciences. Since the IITs have only a few international faculty and students (except those by exchange programs), the rankings of IITs in many international surveys have suffered. Since the IITs have scored better under most educational ranking criteria than other Indian colleges and universities, they continue to achieve top positions in nationwide surveys.[citation needed]
The Dataquest-IDC T-School Survey – 2008[64]
- IIT Kharagpur
- IIT Delhi
- IIT Roorkee
- IIT Kanpur
- IIT Guwahati
- IIT Madras
- International Institute of Information Technology, Hyderabad
- Institute of Technology, Banaras Hindu University
- NIT Calicut
- Netaji Subhas Institute of Technology, New Delhi
- See also: College and university rankings
[edit] Criticism
The IITs have faced criticism from within and outside academia. Major concerns include allegations that they encourage a brain drain and that their stringent entrance examinations encourage coaching colleges and skew the socio-economic profile of the student body. Other critics are concerned at the insufficient representation of women and the disadvantaged. Another criticism of the IIT system is the research culture is not very good.
[edit] Brain drain
Among the criticisms of the IIT system by the media, academia and the people in general, the most prominent is that it encourages brain drain. Until the process of liberalisation started in early 1990s, India walted in large scale emigration of IITians to western countries, especially to the United States. Since 1953, nearly twenty-five thousand IITians have settled in the USA.[65] Since the USA benefited from subsidised education in IITs at the cost of Indian taxpayers’ money, critics say that subsidising education in IITs is useless. Others support the emigration of graduates, arguing that the capital sent home by the IITians has been a major source of the expansion of foreign exchange reserves for India, which, until the 1990s, had a substantial trade deficit.
The extent of intellectual loss has receded substantially over the past decade, with the percentage of students going abroad dropping from as high as 70% to around 30% today.[66][dead link] This is largely attributed to the liberalisation of the Indian economy and the opening of previously closed markets. Government initiatives are encouraging IIT students into entrepreneurship programs and are increasing foreign investment. Emerging scientific and manufacturing industries, and outsourcing of technical jobs from North America and Western Europe have created opportunities for aspiring graduates in India. Many undergraduates go abroad to pursue further studies, such as MS and PhD.
[edit] Entrance competition
The highly competitive examination in the form of IIT-JEE has led to establishment of a large number of coaching institutes throughout the country that provide intensive, and specific preparation for the IIT-JEE for substantial fees. It is argued that this favours students from specific regions and richer backgrounds. Some coaching institutes say that they have individually coached nearly 800 successful candidates year after year.[67] According to some estimates, nearly 95% of all students who clear the IIT-JEE had joined coaching classes.[68] The psychological stress and emotional trauma faced by candidates not able to pass the examination and their families is considered to be a serious problem. This has led to criticism of the way the examinations are conducted. The IIT-JEE format was restructured in 2006 following these complaints.[69]
After the change to the objective pattern of questioning, even the students who initially considered themselves not fit for subjective pattern of IIT-JEE decided to take the examination and some even got selected. Though the restructuring was meant to reduce the dependence of students on coaching classes, it led to an increase in students registering for coaching classes.[27] Some people (mostly IITians) have criticised the changed pattern of the IIT-JEE. Their reasoning is that while IIT-JEE traditionally used to test students understanding of fundamentals and ability to apply them to solve large unseen problems, the current pattern does not stress much on the application part.[70]
[edit] Alumni
Vinod Gupta School of Management in IIT Kharagpur
The IITians are known for their loyalty to their alma mater and many IIT Alumni Associations are active in India and abroad. The IIT alumni either help their alma mater in the form of donations, or by preferential job opportunities extended to students from the IITs. The Vinod Gupta School of Management at IIT Kharagpur and Shailesh J. Mehta School of Management at IIT Bombay are management schools within IITs that have been established largely by alumni donations; these schools were named after their benefactors.
Many IIT alumni have become entrepreneurs, including N.R. Narayana Murthy (co-founder and chairman of Infosys), Vinod Khosla (co-founder, Sun Microsystems), Anurag Dikshit (co-founder of PartyGaming) and Suhas S. Patil (founder and Chairman Emeritus Cirrus Logic Inc.) Other alumni have achieved leading positions in corporations, such as Rajat Gupta (former Managing Director, McKinsey), Arun Sarin (CEO, Vodafone), Victor Menezes (Senior Vice Chairman, Citigroup), and Kanwal Rekhi (CTO, Novell) . IIT alumni have also pursued careers in politics: for example, Manohar Parrikar became the Chief Minister of Goa. Many alumni have gained national and international recognition: Sushantha Kumar Bhattacharyya was awarded the CBE, a knighthood, and Padma Bhushan; and V. C. Kulandaiswamy was awarded Padma Shri and Padma Bhushan. Narendra Karmarkar is also world-renowned for his work in applied mathematics.
[edit] References
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- ^ Natarajan, R. “The Evolution of Postgraduate Engineering Education and Research in India” (PDF). CAGS 2005 Conference 25. Canadian Association for Graduate Studies. Retrieved on 2006-08-27.
- ^ http://www.iitm.ac.in/Academics/Ordinances.html#DUAL Ordinance under Ordinance No. 3
- ^ Natarajan, R. “The Evolution of Postgraduate Engineering Education and Research in India” (PDF). CAGS 2005 Conference 6. Canadian Association for Graduate Studies. Retrieved on 2006-08-27.
- ^ http://www.iitm.ac.in/Academics/Ordinances.html#BTech Ordinance under R.27.0 NCC / NSO / NSS Requirements
- ^ The Director, IIT Madras (2005-05-08). “Director’s Report” (PDF) 36. IIT Madras. Retrieved on 2006-05-26.
- ^ “Illumnination Contest“. IIT Foundation, USA. Retrieved on 2006-05-26.
- ^ “Inter-IIT Sports Meet“. Sports and Fitness. IIT Madras. Retrieved on 2006-08-20.
- ^ Information Management Group (2006-03-23). “Inter IIT Sports Meet ‘05“. IIT Roorkee. Retrieved on 2006-08-20.
- ^ Kumar, Prabhat (2003-02-18). “How to extend the IIT brand“, The Hindu – Businessline. Retrieved on 2006-05-14.
- ^ “Example of Faculty Recruitment Page of IIT Kharagpur“. IIT Kharagpur. Retrieved on 2006-05-14.
- ^ Times News Network (2003-01-15). “Taking Wings“, The Economic Times. Retrieved on 2006-05-14.
- ^ Iype, George (2005-04-08). “Wen might take IIT to China“, Rediff.com. Retrieved on 2006-05-14.
- ^ Chakravorty, Bhaswati (2005-05-12). “Dataquest-IDC-NASSCOM Survey: India’s Best T-Schools“, DATAQUEST. Retrieved on 2006-05-14.
- ^ Ince, Martin (2007-11-09). “
August 9, 2008 by bhaumik
List of search engines
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
This is a list of Wikipedia articles about search engines, including web search engines, metasearch engines, desktop search tools, and web portals and vertical market websites that have a search facility for online databases.
Contents[hide] |
By content/topic
General
- Alexa Internet
- Ask.com (formerly Ask Jeeves)
- Baidu (Chinese)
- Cuil
- Exalead (French)
- Gigablast
- Live Search (formerly MSN Search)
- Sogou (Chinese)
- Sohu (Chinese)
- Wikia Search
- Yahoo! Search
Geographical limited scope
- Accoona, China/US
- Alleba, Philippines
- Ansearch, Australia/US/UK/NZ
- Araby, Middle East
- Baidu, China
- Daum, Korea
- Guruji.com, India
- Goo (search engine), Japan
- Leit.is, Iceland
- Miner.hu, Hungary
- Najdi.si, Slovenia
- Naver, Korea
- Onkosh, Middle East
- Rambler, Russia
- Rediff, India
- SAPO, Portugal
- Search.ch, Switzerland
- Sesam, Norway, Sweden
- Walla!, Israel
- Yandex, Russia
- ZipLocal, Canada/US
Accountancy
Business
Enterprise
- See also: Enterprise search
- AskMeNow: S3 – Semantic Search Solution
- Dieselpoint: Search & Navigation
- dtSearch: dtSearch Engine(SDK), dtSearch Web
- Endeca: Information Access Platform
- Exalead: exalead one:enterprise
- Expert System S.p.A.: Cogito
- Fast Search & Transfer: Enterprise Search Platform (ESP), RetrievalWare (formerly Convera)
- Funnelback: Funnelback Search
- ISYS Search Software: ISYS:web, ISYS:sdk
- Microsoft: SharePoint Search Services
- Northern Light
- Open Text: Hummingbird Search Server, Livelink Search
- Oracle Corporation: Secure Enterprise Search 10g
- SAP: TREX
- TeraText: TeraText Suite
- Vivisimo: Vivisimo Clustering Engine
- ZyLAB Technologies: ZyIMAGE Information Access Platform
Search Appliances
- Google: Google Search Appliance
Job
- See also: Category:Job search engines
- Bixee.com (India)
- CareerBuilder.com (USA)
- Craigslist (by city)
- Eluta.ca (Canada)
- Hotjobs.com (USA)
- Incruit (Korea)
- Indeed.com (USA)
- Monster.com (USA)
- Recruit.net (International)
- SimplyHired.com (USA)
- TheLadders.com (USA)
Legal
Medical
- Bioinformatic Harvester
- Entrez (includes Pubmed)
- EB-eye EBI’s Search Engine EMBL-EBI’s Search engine
- GenieKnows
- GoPubMed (knowledge-based: GO – GeneOntology and MeSH – Medical Subject Headings)
- Healia
- Searchmedica
- WebMD
- PubGene
- Nextbio (Life Science Search Engine)
News
People
Real property
Video Games
By information type
Search engines dedicated to a specific kind of information
Forum
Blog
Multimedia
- See also: Multimedia search
Source code
BitTorrent
These search engines work across the BitTorrent protocol.
Maps
Price
- Google Product Search (formerly Froogle)
- Kelkoo
- MSN Shopping
- MySimon
- PriceGrabber
- PriceRunner
- Shopping.com
- ShopWiki
- Shopzilla (also operates Bizrate)
- TheFind.com
Question and answer
- Answers.com
- AskMeNow
- BrainBoost
- eHow
- hakia
- Lexxe
- Lycos iQ
- Powerset
- Live Search QnA
- Uclue
- Yahoo! Answers
By model
Open source search engines
- DataparkSearch
- Egothor
- Gonzui
- Grub
- Ht://dig
- Isearch
- Lucene
- Lemur Toolkit & Indri Search Engine
- mnoGoSearch
- Namazu
- Nutch
- OpenFTS
- Sciencenet (for scientific knowledge, based on YaCy technology)
- Sphinx
- SWISH-E
- Terrier Search Engine
- Wikia Search
- Xapian
- YaCy
- Zettair
Social search engines
- See also: Social search, Relevance feedback, and Human search engine
- ChaCha Search
- Eurekster
- Mahalo.com
- Rollyo
- Trexy
- Wink provides web search by analyzing user contributions such as bookmarks and feedback
Metasearch engines
- See also: Metasearch engine
- Brainboost
- Clusty
- Dogpile
- Excite
- HotBot
- Info.com
- Ixquick
- Kayak
- Mamma
- Metacrawler
- MetaLib
- Mobissimo
- Myriad Search
- SideStep
- Turbo10
- WebCrawler
Visual search engines
Desktop search engines
- See also: Desktop search
See also Comparison of desktop search software
Name  |
Platform |
Remarks |
License |
|---|---|---|---|
| Ask.com | Windows | - | Freeware |
| Autonomy | Windows | IDOL Enterprise Desktop Search. | Proprietary, commercial |
| Beagle | Linux | Open source desktop search tool for Linux based on Lucene | A mix of the X11/MIT License and the Apache License |
| Copernic Desktop Search | Windows | Considered best overall search engine in 2005 UW benchmark study.[1] | Free for home use |
| Docco | Unix | Based on Apache’s indexing and search engine Lucene, and it requires a Java Runtime Environment. | BSD License [2] |
| dtSearch Desktop | Windows | Proprietary (30 day trial) | |
| Filehawk | Windows | Indexes and searches files’ content in computers, networks and removable data storage devices | Proprietary (30 day trial) |
| Gaviri PocketSearch | Windows | Indexes desktop, network drives and portable devices. | Freeware or commercial |
| Google Desktop | Linux, Mac OS, Windows | Integrates with the main Google search engine page. | Freeware |
| GNOME Storage | Linux | Open Source desktop search tool for Unix/Linux | GPL |
| imgSeek | Linux, Mac OS, Windows | Desktop content-based image search | GPL v2 [3] |
| ISYS Search Software | Windows | ISYS:desktop search software. | Proprietary (14 day trial) |
| Likasoft Archivarius 3000 | Windows | - | Proprietary (30 day trial) |
| Meta Tracker | Linux, Unix | Open Source desktop search tool for Unix/Linux | GPL v2 [4] |
| Spotlight | Mac OS | Found in Apple Mac OS X “Tiger” and later OS X releases. | Proprietary |
| Strigi | Linux, Unix | Cross-platform open source desktop search engine | LGPL v2 [5] |
| Terrier Search Engine | Linux, Mac OS, Unix | Desktop search for Windows, Mac OS X (Tiger), Unix/Linux. | MPL |
| Tropes Zoom | Windows | Semantic Search Engine. | Freeware and commercial |
| Windows Search | Windows | Part of Windows Vista and later OSs. Available as Windows Desktop Search for Windows XP and Server 2003. | Proprietary, freeware |
| X1 Professional Client | Windows | Formerly Yahoo Desktop Search, then X1 Desktop Search, then X1 Enterprise Client | Proprietary (30 day trial) |
Usenet
- Google Groups (formerly Deja News)
Based on
Yahoo!
Live Search
Ask.com
Defunct search engines
- BRS/Search (now OpenText Livelink ECM Discovery Server)
- Google Answers
- Infoseek
- Inktomi
- Lotus Magellan
- Overture.com (formerly GoTo.com, now Yahoo! Search Marketing)
- PubSub
- Singingfish
- Teoma
- WiseNut
- World Wide Web Worm
- Excite (now a metasearch)
- WebCrawler (now a metasearch)
nano……
August 9, 2008 by bhaumikNanotechnology
From Wikibooks, the open-content textbooks collection
The Opensource Handbook of Nanoscience and Nanotechnology
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Part 1: Introduction
Why is nanotechnology such a ‘hot’ subject – and is it more hype than substance? This part gives a brief introduction to the visions of nanotechnology and why so many people are working on it around the world. To help set a perspective there are overview tables with timelines, length scales and information resources.
Part 2: Seeing ‘Nano’
Microscopes allows us to probe the structure of matter with high spatial resolution, making it possible to see for instance individual atoms with tools such as the scanning tunneling microscope, the atomic force microscope, and the transmission electron microscope. With the related spectroscopic methods, we can study the energy levels in nanosystems. This part gives an overview of the tools and methods used in microscopy and spectroscopy of nanostructures.
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Part 3: Physics at the Nanoscale
On the nanoscale force that we in everyday life do not consider strong, such as contact adhesion, become much more important. In addition, many things behave in a quantum mechanical way. This chapter looks into the scaling of the forces and fundamental dynamics of matter on the nanoscale.
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Part 4: Nanomaterials
Many unique nanostructured materials have been made, such as carbon nanotubes that can be mechanically stronger than diamond. This part provides an overview of nanoscale materials such as carbon nanotubes, nanowires, quantum dots and nanoparticles, their unique properties and fabrication methods.
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Part 5: Nanosystems
To understand the novel possibilities in nanotechnology, this part gives an overview of some typical nanoscale systems – simple experimental devices that show unique nanoscale behavior useful in for instance electronics.
Part 6: Nanoengineering
Combining nanodevices into functional units for real life application is a daunting task because making controlled structures with molecularly sized components requires extreme precision and control. Here we look at ways to assemble nanosystems into functional units or working devices with top-down or bottom-up approaches.
See also the Wikibook on Microtechnology which contains information about many fabrication and processing details.
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Part 7: Nano-Bio Primer
Your body is based on a fantastic amount of biological nanotechnology operating right now in each of your body’s cells, which has evolved over aeons to an awesome level of complexity. Much of current nanotechnology research is aimed at bio-applications, such as bio-sensors and biologically active nanoparticles for medical therapy or targeting cancer. This part is an introduction to this cross-disciplinary field.
Part 8: Environmental Nanotechnology
People are very enthusiastic about the visions of nanotechnology, but at the same time there is a natural worry about the environmental issues of the emerging technologies. This area is being increasingly brought into focus to ensure a healthy development.
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Part 9: Nanomedicine
Helping improve humanity is one of the promises of nanotechnology. Much hope and hype has surrounded nanomedicine. Research is actively pursuing the benefits of nanotechnology enabled medicine and the promise of organ specific drug delivery and cancer treatments. But, there is no consensus among the research and medicine community that shows the toxic effects of heavy metal nanoparticles in the body when used as “treatments”. This chapter will highlight some of the research findings in the nanomedicine area.
